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	<title>Mati&#232;re et R&#233;volution</title>
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<item xml:lang="pt">
		<title>Cronologia da Revolu&#231;&#227;o dos Cravos</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6503</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6503</guid>
		<dc:date>2019-09-12T22:05:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>pt</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>R&#233;volution</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>R&#233;volte</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Cronologia da Revolu&#231;&#227;o dos Cravos &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1926 regime autorit&#225;rio do &#034;Estado Novo&#034; ditadura conservadora e nacionalista que se baseia em for&#231;as armadas, na Igreja Cat&#243;lica e &#224; pol&#237;cia secreta e militar (PIDE). &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1930: Estabelecimento da ditadura fascista de Salazar em Portugal &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1968: Falha militar de Portugal nas suas col&#244;nias na &#193;frica, particularmente Angola e Mo&#231;ambique &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1970: Substitui&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a do poder Salazar e Caetano, mantendo o tipo de plano, com um peso especial da pol&#237;cia (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique155" rel="directory"&gt;19- PORTUGUES - MATERIAL Y REVOLUCION&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot45" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volution&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot139" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volte&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Cronologia da Revolu&#231;&#227;o dos Cravos&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1926 regime autorit&#225;rio do &#034;Estado Novo&#034; ditadura conservadora e nacionalista que se baseia em for&#231;as armadas, na Igreja Cat&#243;lica e &#224; pol&#237;cia secreta e militar (PIDE).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1930: Estabelecimento da ditadura fascista de Salazar em Portugal&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1968: Falha militar de Portugal nas suas col&#244;nias na &#193;frica, particularmente Angola e Mo&#231;ambique&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1970: Substitui&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a do poder Salazar e Caetano, mantendo o tipo de plano, com um peso especial da pol&#237;cia pol&#237;tica, a PIDE, torturar e aterrorizar. O poder, mesmo mudando de m&#227;os, &#233; incapaz de entrar em Portugal na modernidade da Europa Ocidental e, especialmente, incapaz de tirar o pa&#237;s de sua guerra colonial sujo que &#233; apenas um peso morto a economia e para o clima social e pol&#237;tico, que s&#243; pode levar &#224; derrota.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1973: In&#237;cio da revolta dos soldados portugueses do ex&#233;rcito africano, em grande parte recrutas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Uma oposi&#231;&#227;o de oficiais, em primeiro lugar mais corporativista do que pol&#237;tica, &#233; organizado em torno da rejei&#231;&#227;o por parte de oficiais de carreira de dois decretos legislativos (n&#186;s 353/73 e 409/73) destinados a facilitar o recrutamento de oficiais na frente africana incluindo civis que j&#225; serviram.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;De novembro de 1973 a abril de 1974: h&#225; 54 greves nas f&#225;bricas na Finl&#226;ndia, duramente, muitas vezes com ocupa&#231;&#245;es, todas organizadas fora dos sindicatos e do PCP stalinista.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1974: Constitui&#231;&#227;o de uma dire&#231;&#227;o militar da insurrei&#231;&#227;o: o Movimento das For&#231;as Armadas ou MFA. Seu programa: todo o poder de uma junta militar que imp&#245;e o fim da guerra colonial e um moderno desenvolvimento de Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 de abril de 1974: O golpe militar liderado pelo general Sp&#237;nola reacion&#225;ria ex-governador colonial da Guin&#233;, transforma a seu favor o descontentamento explosivo do Ex&#233;rcito Portugu&#234;s, derrubou a ditadura fascista de Marcelo Caetano, substituindo-o pelo junta militar chamado &#034;Hi Nacional&#034;, esperando assim preservar os fundamentos do fascismo desestabilizado pela enorme perda de guerras coloniais em &#193;frica (Angola, Mo&#231;ambique, Guin&#233;, Cabo Verde).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;O Movimento das For&#231;as Armadas anuncia a derrubada do regime e pede &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o que n&#227;o se mova e mantenha a calma.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Apesar dos apelos regulares de &#034;capit&#227;es de Abril&#034; do MFA no r&#225;dio incitando a popula&#231;&#227;o a ficar em casa, milhares de Portugu&#234;s foram &#224;s ruas, misturando-se com os rebeldes militares.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Caetano concorda em entregar o poder ao general Spinola, para impedi-lo de cair nas m&#227;os dos rebeldes. Spinola &#233; imediatamente um novo poder liderado por uma junta militar, chamada &#034;junta da salva&#231;&#227;o nacional&#034;, para evitar qualquer vazio do poder burgu&#234;s. Longe de conceder imediatamente independ&#234;ncia &#224;s col&#244;nias africanas, o MFA e a junta est&#227;o negociando com os nacionalistas. Essas pot&#234;ncias militares tentam colocar em pr&#225;tica todas as barreiras &#224;s demandas e excessos populares e encontrar os rel&#233;s civis dessa pol&#237;tica. PC e PS ir&#227;o ajud&#225;-los com toda a sua for&#231;a.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Spinola, longe de afirmar que ir imediatamente para a independ&#234;ncia das col&#244;nias na &#193;frica, diz que &#233; muito cedo &#034;para que as pr&#243;prias pessoas podem decidir sobre o seu futuro.&#034; Ele n&#227;o prev&#234; a independ&#234;ncia, mas uma jornada gradual em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; &#034;autodetermina&#231;&#227;o&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;A Spinola n&#227;o representa de modo algum as imensas aspira&#231;&#245;es do povo portugu&#234;s pela paz, terra, democracia, bem-estar, fim da explora&#231;&#227;o e opress&#227;o e nem sequer pelas aspira&#231;&#245;es dos soldados portugueses. Os tanques est&#227;o nas ruas, mas n&#227;o impedem que as massas ataquem os quart&#233;is da PIDE, a pol&#237;cia pol&#237;tica torturadora, mortalmente odiada pelo povo portugu&#234;s. Desde o primeiro dia do golpe de Estado, as massas tomar&#227;o a iniciativa de a&#231;&#245;es que demonstrem que superar&#227;o amplamente as esperan&#231;as dos militares e de todas as for&#231;as burguesas, aqueles que ainda acreditam em um replanejamento do fascismo e mesmo daqueles que pensam que s&#227;o democr&#225;ticos. Os trabalhadores da Mague (Alverca) iniciam a primeira greve com ocupa&#231;&#227;o que inicia um movimento. Os soldados n&#227;o esperam as ordens e come&#231;am a deixar o quartel, a confraternizar com o povo trabalhador, descer com ele nas ruas. Os partidos democr&#225;ticos e de esquerda (nomeadamente PCP e PS, e tamb&#233;m SEDES e CDE) apoiam Spinola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Cria&#231;&#227;o do Movimento de For&#231;as Armadas do MFA, que pretende unificar os l&#237;deres militares que tentam colocar Portugal em estagna&#231;&#227;o na guerra colonial. &#201; uma institui&#231;&#227;o contradit&#243;ria, combinando altos quadros reacion&#225;rios com capit&#227;es e aspira&#231;&#245;es radicais democr&#225;ticos pequeno-burgueses sem poder real, incapazes de desenvolver uma perspectiva real, mas apenas semear ilus&#245;es, enganos sustentados pelo partido stalinista e certos elementos da extrema esquerda. O MFA, ao polarizar em seu nome as expectativas democr&#225;ticas, visa de fato encapsular, restringir, impor sua domina&#231;&#227;o militar. O &#034;Pacto partid&#225;rio do MFA&#034; d&#225; dom&#237;nio ao MFA, autoproclamado &#034;Guia da Revolu&#231;&#227;o&#034;. O partido mais ligado ao MFA &#233; o partido stalinista do PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1&#186; de maio de 1974: manifesta&#231;&#227;o em massa. &#201; a festa &#201; a aparente unanimidade da democracia ... Os confrontos vir&#227;o depois. Os partidos de esquerda (PCP, CDE, PS, etc.) fazem da manifesta&#231;&#227;o popular a bandeira da alian&#231;a de todas as classes, da alian&#231;a armada e da unidade nacional. Eles apoiam fortemente o MFA e at&#233; Spinola. No entanto, a extrema esquerda est&#225; se manifestando independentemente das for&#231;as burguesas e pequeno-burguesas &#034;democr&#225;ticas&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 de maio de 1974: &#193;lvaro Cunhal, l&#237;der do PC portugu&#234;s, explica ao jornal &#034;L'Humanit&#233;&#034; que &#034;A alian&#231;a das for&#231;as populares e o movimento das for&#231;as armadas &#233; a condi&#231;&#227;o fundamental da vit&#243;ria da democracia&#034;. O principal partido oper&#225;rio do pa&#237;s tra&#231;a uma perspectiva perfeitamente burguesa: salvaguardar o aparato estatal, o ex&#233;rcito, o poder de classe e, como recompensa por essa sabedoria, apenas a &#034;democracia&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 de maio de 1974: Retornando de uma viagem a Angola, tudo que o general Gomes prop&#245;e &#233; um cessar-fogo em Angola, Mo&#231;ambique e Guin&#233;. O Sr. Soares &#233; escolhido como negociador chefe da burguesia portuguesa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Maio a Setembro de 1974: movimentos de greve dos trabalhadores em todo o pa&#237;s (sider&#250;rgicas do Barreiro, trabalhadores do grupo CUF, trabalhadores da Lisnave, etc.), greves que se desenvolvem apesar da lei anti-greve, apesar da oposi&#231;&#227;o greves do partido stalinista e dos sindicatos que o seguem. O PCP est&#225; quebrando greves sob o pretexto de &#034;salvaguardar a economia nacional&#034;. Movimentos de soldados e manifesta&#231;&#245;es em massa est&#227;o a decorrer contra as tentativas do ex&#233;rcito de continuar a enviar soldados portugueses para Angola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;20 de junho de 1974: Na Mutuality, Georges Marchais e Vitoriano acusam grupos de esquerda de amea&#231;ar o retorno &#224; democracia por a&#231;&#245;es irrespons&#225;veis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;21 de junho de 1974: Um decreto-lei governamental limita a liberdade de imprensa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 de julho de 1974: Cria&#231;&#227;o do COPCON liderado por Otello de Carvalho. Criado como uma &#034;for&#231;a militar para a defesa do MFA&#034;, ser&#225; apresentado por muitos esquerdistas como um instrumento revolucion&#225;rio ao lado do proletariado!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Junho-julho de 1974: Segunda onda de greves (padeiros, pescadores, Carris, etc ...) Irrup&#231;&#227;o da revolta dos camponeses pobres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 de julho de 1974: Vasco Gon&#231;alves lidera o novo governo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Julho-agosto de 1974: Os jornais s&#227;o suspensos por relatar demonstra&#231;&#245;es de extrema-esquerda de apoio aos separatistas africanos. Nenhum PCP ou apoio &#224; esquerda para jornais atacados ou manifestantes de esquerda amea&#231;ados ou presos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 de agosto de 1974: O ex&#233;rcito reprime violentamente uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o popular contra a pol&#237;cia pol&#237;tica, a PIDE e em apoio aos detentos amotinados da pris&#227;o de Caxias.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 de agosto de 1974: A pol&#237;cia disparou contra uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o pac&#237;fica de apoio ao MPLA e &#224; independ&#234;ncia dos assentamentos. Uma pessoa morta&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 de agosto de 1974: O governo requisitou que os funcion&#225;rios da TAP interrompessem a greve. Os trabalhadores v&#227;o e continuam a greve.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Setembro de 1974: Dois regimentos demonstram, organizam e cancelam seu embarque para as col&#244;nias. Na classe trabalhadora, o movimento de massas imp&#245;e aos partidos reformistas e aos sindicatos a coordena&#231;&#227;o das Comiss&#245;es de Trabalhadores. &#201; for&#231;ado e for&#231;ado que o Partido Comunista Portugu&#234;s (stalinista) se unir&#225;, mas n&#227;o parar&#225;, como o Intersyndicale, para militar contra eles, para procurar isol&#225;-los, desacredit&#225;-los. No entanto, at&#233; 28 de setembro de 1975, s&#227;o as Comiss&#245;es de Trabalhadores que liderar&#227;o as batalhas pelos aumentos salariais, j&#225; um ponto fundamental que os op&#245;e ao Intersyndicale e ao PCP. Eles est&#227;o se mobilizando para expulsar os fascistas das f&#225;bricas, o segundo ponto de diverg&#234;ncia com eles. Eles se mobilizar&#227;o contra as opera&#231;&#245;es do poder militar, inclusive mobilizando, em 28 de setembro de 1974, contra a alegada &#034;manifesta&#231;&#227;o silenciosa&#034; do general Spinola. Ou novamente em 11 de mar&#231;o de 1975 contra os desordeiros de Lisboa. Mas as Comiss&#245;es dos Trabalhadores sofrem com a falta de uma perspectiva pol&#237;tica de classe. A espontaneidade n&#227;o &#233; tudo ... A organiza&#231;&#227;o de massa do proletariado teve que se tornar uma dualidade de poder, desafiando o poder estatal burgu&#234;s e militar. Nenhum partido pol&#237;tico revolucion&#225;rio, nem qualquer grupo de extrema esquerda, liderou tal pol&#237;tica dentro das Comiss&#245;es de Trabalhadores. A quest&#227;o do car&#225;ter do poder estatal que os trabalhadores desejam n&#227;o foi colocada nas Comiss&#245;es dos Trabalhadores.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;10 de setembro de 1974: Independ&#234;ncia da Guin&#233;-Bissau. O general Spinola pede uma contra-revolu&#231;&#227;o.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 de setembro de 1974: Demonstra&#231;&#227;o dos trabalhadores da Lisnave.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 de setembro de 1974: barricadas revolucion&#225;rias em Lisboa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Este &#233; o come&#231;o do fim das ilus&#245;es sobre o novo poder. Um novo confronto acontece: barricadas s&#227;o erguidas na noite de 27 a 28 de setembro perto de Lisboa pelos trabalhadores apoiados pelos revolucion&#225;rios. O ex&#233;rcito n&#227;o intervir&#225; at&#233; a manh&#227; do dia 28. Sp&#237;nola interveio diretamente tomando poderes completos. Tamb&#233;m foi necess&#225;rio cancelar uma &#034;demonstra&#231;&#227;o da minoria silenciosa&#034; que foi programada!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;O general Spinola renuncia e cede o poder ao general Costa Gomes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 de outubro de 1974: O l&#237;der stalinista Alvaro Cunhal diz que o papel dos soldados do MFA n&#227;o vai parar nas elei&#231;&#245;es. O PCP &#233;, portanto, o principal defensor do papel pol&#237;tico das for&#231;as armadas. Sobre o papel da a&#231;&#227;o aut&#244;noma dos trabalhadores, ele n&#227;o diz, claro, nem uma palavra! Para o PCP, existem apenas for&#231;as armadas, institui&#231;&#245;es estatais como elei&#231;&#245;es burguesas e aparato sindical! Nenhum tra&#231;o da concep&#231;&#227;o sovi&#233;tica do conselho de Lenin em Cunhal !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 de outubro de 1974: O MFA adquire uma lideran&#231;a pol&#237;tica, o &#034;Alto Conselho&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Novembro de 1974: Muitas greves acontecem nas empresas para purgar os fascistas. O PCP e o Intersyndicale (lembre-se que une sindicatos prost&#225;ticos, sindicatos democr&#225;ticos e os velhos sindicatos fascistas) est&#227;o tentando se opor a isso.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;14 de janeiro de 1975: PCP, MDP e MES demonstram a favor da &#034;uni&#227;o &#250;nica&#034; que se torna para eles um objetivo essencial para efetivamente enquadrar o proletariado em movimento. Esta bandeira da &#034;unidade prolet&#225;ria&#034; permite ao PCP colocar a divis&#227;o dentro das chamadas for&#231;as progressistas entre ele e o PS, reivindicando apenas o controle dos sindicatos. A partir de agora, a luta entre PCP e PS &#233; apresentada por eles como o ponto central da luta !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 de janeiro de 1975: O MFA vota oficialmente pelo &#250;nico sindicato exigido pelo partido stalinista. A lei ser&#225; aprovada tr&#234;s dias depois. N&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio apenas que os stalinistas mantenham o movimento oper&#225;rio organizado, mas governante, para evitar movimentos radicais na classe trabalhadora e no campesinato pobre.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Janeiro de 1975: O governo envia p&#225;ra-quedistas para defender os partidos da direita e da extrema direita atacados pela extrema esquerda. O MFA proibiu as manifesta&#231;&#245;es e PCP e PS cumpriram, n&#227;o a extrema esquerda demonstrando em 25 de janeiro, 31 de janeiro e 7 de fevereiro contra a OTAN.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;7 de fevereiro de 1975: Vinte a trinta mil manifestantes marcharam em Lisboa por iniciativa das Comiss&#245;es Oper&#225;rias de 38 f&#225;bricas da regi&#227;o, contra o desemprego e contra a Otan. A manifesta&#231;&#227;o &#233; denunciada pelo Partido Comunista Portugu&#234;s (stalinista). A extrema esquerda denuncia &#034;o PCP que invade a uni&#227;o para colocar sob controle a classe trabalhadora&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 de fevereiro de 1975: Uma Comiss&#227;o de Partidos Pol&#237;ticos do MFA estuda as modalidades de um processo de institucionaliza&#231;&#227;o do MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 de mar&#231;o de 1975: Alavaro Cunhal ataca os revolucion&#225;rios tratados como &#034;esquerdistas, que se dizem revolucion&#225;rios, e s&#243; podem fortalecer a posi&#231;&#227;o da rea&#231;&#227;o &#224;s elei&#231;&#245;es&#034;. Ele denuncia as &#034;a&#231;&#245;es reacion&#225;rias, destinadas a deteriorar a situa&#231;&#227;o econ&#244;mica&#034; por ... greves oper&#225;rias!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;7 a 8 de mar&#231;o de 1975: A pol&#237;cia dispara na extrema esquerda, protestando contra uma reuni&#227;o do PPD em Set&#250;bal. As unidades do ex&#233;rcito e do COPCON ap&#243;iam a pol&#237;cia, deixando dois mortos e vinte feridos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;11 de mar&#231;o de 1975: Tentativa abortada do golpe de direita pr&#243;-Spinola. Mobiliza&#231;&#227;o popular contra uma tentativa de golpe. Cria&#231;&#227;o de um corpo militar, o Conselho da Revolu&#231;&#227;o, que toma todo o poder. O Movimento das For&#231;as Armadas assina um acordo com os chamados partidos democr&#225;ticos. Ele tenta enganar a classe trabalhadora ao lan&#231;ar nacionaliza&#231;&#245;es.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#193;lvaro Cunhal afirma: &#034;O setor nacionalizado j&#225; se libertou da explora&#231;&#227;o capitalista e foi posto a servi&#231;o de uma din&#226;mica econ&#244;mica em favor do povo e do socialismo. O PCP imediatamente infiltra seus homens nos &#243;rg&#227;os de governo das empresas nacionalizadas. A classe trabalhadora, por outro lado, n&#227;o tem controle sobre a dire&#231;&#227;o dessas empresas. Na verdade, PCP e CDM-CDE compartilham poder real em localidades e empresas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 de mar&#231;o de 1975: O MFA &#233; constitu&#237;do em &#243;rg&#227;o superior do poder que chama naturalmente de &#034;&#243;rg&#227;o da revolu&#231;&#227;o&#034;. Ele proclama: &#034;Todo o poder no MFA&#034;! Precisamos &#034;fazer a revolu&#231;&#227;o&#034; para impedir que os trabalhadores fa&#231;am e d&#234;em um significado diferente. Spinola e 18 oficiais superiores se refugiam na Espanha&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;13 de mar&#231;o de 1975: Nacionaliza&#231;&#227;o dos bancos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 de mar&#231;o de 1975: Nacionaliza&#231;&#227;o do seguro. Ativistas de esquerda s&#227;o presos por &#034;distribuir panfletos ofensivos contra o MFA&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;18 de mar&#231;o de 1975: O MRPP Maoista e o COA (extrema esquerda) est&#227;o proibidos de exercer atividade pol&#237;tica durante a campanha eleitoral de 25 de abril.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 de mar&#231;o de 1975: O governo decreta a proibi&#231;&#227;o de qualquer atividade pol&#237;tica p&#250;blica contra o MRPP. O PCP suporta esta medida. No dia seguinte, Cunhal (PCP) declara que &#034;as partes que conspiram contra a liberdade devem ser banidas e seus l&#237;deres severamente punidos&#034; !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;27 de mar&#231;o de 1975: Generaliza&#231;&#227;o das ocupa&#231;&#245;es de casas vazias.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2 de abril de 1975: Uma plataforma de partido pol&#237;tico da MFA &#233; assinada pelo PCP, PS, CDS, FSP, CDM e PPD.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;22 de abril de 1975: O PCP anuncia que o PS &#233; o centro oculto de Spinola! Desprezado pela extrema esquerda, colocando-se inteiramente sob a depend&#234;ncia do MFA, ele busca, para fazer crer que ele seria a ala radical do movimento popular, apresentar a oposi&#231;&#227;o PCP-PS como o ponto central da luta pol&#237;tica. ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 de abril de 1975: Campanha eleitoral organizada pelos militares para canalizar a erup&#231;&#227;o em um quadro institucional burgu&#234;s. As elei&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o favorecem o PCP (PS 38%, PPD 26%, PCP 13%).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 de abril de 1975: Costa Martins, ministro do Trabalho junto ao Partido Comunista Portugu&#234;s, declara: &#034;Nos tempos dif&#237;ceis de Portugal, a greve pode geralmente ser considerada contrarrevolucion&#225;ria. E acrescenta que at&#233; que os sindicatos estejam bem estabelecidos ser&#225; &#034;dif&#237;cil se opor a uma certa corrente pol&#237;tica que empurre a ocupa&#231;&#227;o das f&#225;bricas&#034;. &#034;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Final de Abril de 1975: amea&#231;as de Vasco Gon&#231;alves contra a classe trabalhadora, se n&#227;o se envolver na &#034;batalha de produ&#231;&#227;o&#034; para a reconstru&#231;&#227;o da economia nacional. O PCP continua, no entanto, a afirmar que &#034;o MFA &#233; uma avant-garde ao lado de outras for&#231;as democr&#225;ticas&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1 de maio de 1975: PCP e Intersyndicale organizam um primeiro maio pr&#243;-governo no qual Mario Soares est&#225; proibido de intervir no p&#243;dio. O &#250;nico &#034;radicalismo&#034; do PCP &#233; contra o PS!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 de maio de 1975: O MRPP destaca a exist&#234;ncia de golpistas de extrema-direita no MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 de maio de 1975: O PCP acusa o PS de &#034;polarizar as for&#231;as reacion&#225;rias e conservadoras, come&#231;ando pelos grupos de esquerda pseudo-revolucion&#225;rios&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 de maio de 1975: O russo Pravda denuncia a extrema esquerda de Portugal e ap&#243;ia o MFA com o qual o Estado russo firmou acordos militares e comerciais.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 de junho de 1975: COPCON abre fogo contra manifestantes de extrema esquerda em frente &#224; pris&#227;o de Caxias contra a deten&#231;&#227;o de militantes de extrema esquerda e antifascistas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 de junho de 1975: Cunhal declara: &#034;Um governo militar n&#227;o significa necessariamente ditadura. Pode ser um governo que proteja as liberdades amea&#231;adas. &#034;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;O MFA nomeia um oficial militar, acusado de proibir os &#034;expurgos selvagens&#034; contra os fascistas, golpistas, CIA e outras direitas extremas implicadas pela extrema esquerda.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 de junho de 1975: Nacionaliza&#231;&#227;o do Transporte de Lisboa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;8 de junho de 1975: Motim de cerca de sessenta soldados que se recusam a embarcar para Angola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;17 de junho de 1975: Demonstra&#231;&#227;o trabalhista da extrema esquerda para os Conselhos Revolucion&#225;rios de trabalhadores, soldados e marinheiros, com 2.000 trabalhadores da Lisnave.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;A r&#225;dio renascentista &#233; ocupada pelos trabalhadores.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 de junho de 1975: O MFA acentua o controle militar sobre o poder do Estado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 de junho de 1975: 89 torturadores da antiga PIDE fogem de sua pris&#227;o ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 de julho de 1975: O &#034;Conselho da Revolu&#231;&#227;o&#034; decide p&#244;r sob controle o controle das centrais telef&#244;nicas e as esta&#231;&#245;es de r&#225;dio. O ex&#233;rcito est&#225; pronto para ocupar os centros de triagem postal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 de julho de 1975: O ex&#233;rcito coloca a r&#225;dio-renascentista sob seu controle.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;11 de julho de 1975: Ministros socialistas se retiram do governo. Seis dias depois, os ministros da PPD tamb&#233;m se retiraram. A coaliz&#227;o burguesa MFA-Partis est&#225; quebrada.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Julho de 1975: 200.000 manifestantes atr&#225;s do PS, ent&#227;o ... nada! O PS tem pontua&#231;&#245;es eleitorais e semeia ilus&#245;es passivas, mas n&#227;o &#233; uma for&#231;a ativa e militante. E sua concep&#231;&#227;o de democracia burguesa pro&#237;be-o de ir al&#233;m da ordem burguesa. O PS visa apenas expulsar o PCP do governo e encarregar-se das rela&#231;&#245;es com as for&#231;as armadas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;18 de julho de 1975: Diante da reuni&#227;o do PS no Porto, o PCP organiza barreiras para bani-lo!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 de julho de 1975: Diante de uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o do PS, o PCP e o Intersyndicale organizam barragens para bani-lo!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 de julho de 1975: Um triunvirato militar toma o poder (Costa Gomes, Vasco Gon&#231;alves e Otelo de Carvalho).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Julho-agosto de 1975: surto maci&#231;o de camponeses no movimento dos trabalhadores. &#201; um movimento prolet&#225;rio que ainda ser&#225; explorado pelos fascistas e por todos os anticomunistas, especialmente no norte do pa&#237;s. Os camponeses mais mobilizados s&#227;o os das regi&#245;es de Famalic&#227;o, P&#243;voa de Lanhoso, Braga, Santo Tirso e Aveiro e Bombarral. Os ativistas do PCP e do CDM-CDE s&#227;o violentamente atacados. Em quest&#227;o, a pol&#237;tica liderada pelo governo, apoiada por esses partidos, n&#227;o atacou de modo algum a mis&#233;ria camponesa. Os camponeses que n&#227;o t&#234;m dinheiro para comprar comida para os animais s&#227;o for&#231;ados a cort&#225;-los e vend&#234;-los. Em vez de dissolver as velhas organiza&#231;&#245;es dos exploradores fascistas, esses partidos posicionaram seus militantes l&#225;. O comunismo, aos olhos dos camponeses do norte de Portugal, emergiu como uma for&#231;a armada ditatorial que se imp&#245;e pela for&#231;a e aumenta a mis&#233;ria do povo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1 de agosto de 1975: Grande demonstra&#231;&#227;o de Comiss&#245;es de Trabalhadores, bairros, estudantes destacando a alian&#231;a oper&#225;rio-campon&#234;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;No dia 4 de agosto, a sede do PCP em Povoa de Lanhoso foi invadida e saqueada por 300 camponeses. A 6 de agosto, a sede do PCP, CDM e CDE est&#225; devastada em Santo Tirso. O car&#225;ter dessa revolta n&#227;o &#233; fundamentalmente anticomunista. Agricultores e outros manifestantes fazem a diferen&#231;a entre o PCP e os revolucion&#225;rios, geralmente n&#227;o os atacando. Os camponeses rebeldes n&#227;o se reconhecem em nenhum partido pol&#237;tico e n&#227;o apresentam nenhum programa social e pol&#237;tico claro. Eles s&#227;o realmente manipulados pela extrema direita fascista apenas marginalmente e n&#227;o dur&#225;vel. Os grandes benefici&#225;rios s&#227;o alguns grandes latifundi&#225;rios que conseguiram lucrar com a recusa do MFA em realizar uma reforma agr&#225;ria radical que beneficiasse os camponeses pobres. O PCP e uma parte da extrema esquerda espalharam a tese de uma regi&#227;o do norte entregue aos camponeses fascistas! A pol&#237;tica do governo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos camponeses pobres, especialmente aqueles no norte, n&#227;o muda nada! Nunca o PCP ir&#225; defender uma pol&#237;tica do tipo &#034;a terra para quem trabalha&#034;! Isso significaria a expropria&#231;&#227;o dos latifundi&#225;rios, um aumento maci&#231;o dos sal&#225;rios agr&#237;colas, a supress&#227;o das formas feudais no campo, o retorno aos camponeses dos comunais ocupados desde o fascismo pelos grandes propriet&#225;rios de terras, a ajuda estatal para obras de irriga&#231;&#227;o, fertilizantes, m&#225;quinas agr&#237;colas, al&#237;vio da d&#237;vida para pequenos agricultores, cortes de impostos, etc.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;O programa do MFA, apoiado pelo PCP, fornece apenas a &#034;revitaliza&#231;&#227;o da agricultura&#034; e uma reforma gradual da estrutura agr&#237;cola que ainda n&#227;o &#233; aplicada ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;A reforma radical e r&#225;pida ter&#225; lugar ... no sul, onde &#233; montada &#224; for&#231;a pelos camponeses que, sem esperar pelo governo, o MFA ou o PCP, ocupam todas as terras das grandes propriedades. O PCP estar&#225; contente, em &#225;reas que, ao contr&#225;rio do norte, s&#227;o favor&#225;veis, para reivindicar a legaliza&#231;&#227;o pelas ocupa&#231;&#245;es de terra do MFA. Mobilizou-se principalmente para evitar que o movimento espont&#226;neo de ocupa&#231;&#227;o conduzisse &#224; organiza&#231;&#227;o aut&#243;noma dos camponeses, tendo-os enquadrado pelos sindicatos IRA e CRRA e que se contentam em pedir ajuda estatal. E o mais importante, a pol&#237;tica do PCP isola os camponeses pobres do norte, onde eles s&#227;o proporcionalmente muito mais numerosos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;10 a 11 de agosto de 1975: Nacionaliza&#231;&#227;o de cervejarias e estaleiros.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 de agosto de 1975: A greve anti-camponesa do Intersindicale, supostamente contra a rea&#231;&#227;o, e do PCP &#233; boicotada pelos trabalhadores e travada por uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o das Comiss&#245;es de Trabalhadores em Lisboa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Em agosto de 1975, em muitas empresas, listas sindicais revolucion&#225;rias superaram as listas do PCP e do Intersyndicale.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;24 de agosto de 1975: Cria&#231;&#227;o de uma &#034;Unidade Frente Revolucion&#225;ria&#034; (RUF) entre PCP e alguns grupos trotskistas (PRI, BR, LCI, LUAR) em apoio Gon&#231;alves lutou com poder militar por Melo Antunes Carvalho. Cinco dias depois, Gon&#231;alves ser&#225; nomeado chefe do Conselho da Revolu&#231;&#227;o. Um grande obrigado aos stalinistas e pseudo-revolucion&#225;rios e pseudo-trotskistas!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 de setembro de 1975: Gon&#231;alves &#233; expulso do novo Conselho da Revolu&#231;&#227;o.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;09 de setembro de 1975: A chamada oposi&#231;&#227;o militar &#034;Soldiers United derrota&#034; ou SUV, organizado entre os oficiais pr&#243;-COPCON formar uma tend&#234;ncia apoiada por frente chamado de &#034;trotskistas&#034; para defender Corvacho (PCP).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;De setembro a novembro de 1975, o PCP instrumentaliza a FUR e a SUV para enquadrar movimentos de massas e sujeit&#225;-los &#224; sua pr&#243;pria depend&#234;ncia do poder militar e burgu&#234;s. A extrema esquerda, que iludiu estas organiza&#231;&#245;es, foi inteiramente manipulada pelo PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;17 de setembro de 1975: Trezentas empresas s&#227;o ocupadas pelos trabalhadores.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 de setembro de 1975: Sexto Governo Provis&#243;rio liderado pelo PS e pelo PPD.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;30 de setembro de 1975: As for&#231;as armadas ocupam as esta&#231;&#245;es de r&#225;dio e TV de Lisboa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1 de outubro de 1975: Soares ap&#243;ia a ocupa&#231;&#227;o militar do r&#225;dio e da TV &#034;que visa libertar a m&#237;dia&#034;!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 de outubro de 1975: O PS liga para protestar &#034;contra a conspira&#231;&#227;o da extrema esquerda&#034; e defender o governo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;SUVs ocupam o quartel do Porto contra a dissolu&#231;&#227;o de um regimento.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;16 de outubro de 1975: O Conselho da Revolu&#231;&#227;o toma medidas para &#034;restaurar a disciplina&#034; no ex&#233;rcito.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;22 de outubro de 1975: A Comiss&#227;o dos Trabalhadores retoma o controle da R&#225;dio-Renascen&#231;a que foi ocupada pelo ex&#233;rcito. Evento de SUV em Lisboa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 de outubro de 1975: Carvalho diz: &#034;O que &#233; perigoso &#233; que a extrema esquerda est&#225; envolvida em uma aventureira telefone, que seria imediatamente utilizado pelas for&#231;as de direita.&#034;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;13 de novembro de 1975: Demonstra&#231;&#227;o dos trabalhadores da constru&#231;&#227;o que soam o reaparecimento do movimento oper&#225;rio revolucion&#225;rio na frente da cena pol&#237;tica. O PCP vai tentar tirar proveito dos medos que este aumento ir&#225; desencadear trabalhando para desenvolver s&#227;o pr&#243;prio papel das massas trabalhadoras de supervis&#227;o e refor&#231;ar a sua alian&#231;a com a parte do ex&#233;rcito ... mas mesmo que destaca o medo de golpistas militares e fascistas e pr&#243;-capitalistas, isto &#233; fundamentalmente contra o proletariado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;O PCP e o MDP defendem, como uma perspectiva contra o PS, contra a direita, contra a extrema direita, contra os golpistas militares para manter as for&#231;as armadas no poder! Eles continuam a afirmar que o ex&#233;rcito &#233; a principal for&#231;a democr&#225;tica e progressista do pa&#237;s !!! Claro, nunca, nunca, mesmo no auge das amea&#231;as de golpe do ex&#233;rcito, esses partidos chamados democr&#225;ticos vai reivindicar apenas a base de soldados &#233; organizado de forma independente da hierarquia e deixa de obedecer a lideran&#231;a em caso de putsch ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;16 nov 1975: Demonstra&#231;&#227;o de 100 000 pessoas organizadas pelo secretariado dos comit&#233;s de trabalhadores da Estrat&#233;gia de Lisboa cinto de trabalho e apoiados pelo PCP e SUV PELE.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;23 de novembro de 1975: Demonstra&#231;&#245;es do PS contra o PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;24-25 de novembro de 1975: Os grandes propriet&#225;rios de terra bloqueiam as estradas do Rio Major para protestar contra as &#034;ocupa&#231;&#245;es ilegais&#034; de camponeses pobres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 de novembro de 1975: Fracasso de uma tentativa de golpe por parte dos soldados que se colocam &#224; esquerda. Numerosos movimentos em todas as dire&#231;&#245;es nas for&#231;as armadas. Em particular, os p&#225;ra-quedistas Tancos ocupam bases militares. Costa Gomes decreta o estado de emerg&#234;ncia. O RTV &#233; ocupado pelo ex&#233;rcito. O sindicato dos metal&#250;rgicos pede uma paralisia da economia e se re&#250;ne em frente ao quartel. O estado de s&#237;tio &#233; proclamado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 de novembro de 1975: convoca&#231;&#227;o dos sindicatos para a greve geral. O PS pede apoio e chora para Costa Gomes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;27 de novembro de 1975: Lei Marcial. Pesquisas. Censura. Pris&#245;es. Toque de recolher. Deten&#231;&#227;o de agentes ligados ao golpe de tancos. O PCP declara: &#034;Devemos procurar uma solu&#231;&#227;o pol&#237;tica e negociada para a crise&#034; ....&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2 de abril de 1976: Promulga&#231;&#227;o de uma nova constitui&#231;&#227;o que prev&#234; um presidente da Rep&#250;blica eleito por sufr&#225;gio universal, mas com poderes limitados.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 de abril de 1976: elei&#231;&#245;es legislativas: 35% dos votos para os socialistas, 24% PPD, 16% nos CDS de centro-direita, 14,4% para o PC. Mario Soares se torna chefe de governo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>La conqu&#234;te espagnole de l'Am&#233;rique, un grand crime de masse</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6397</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6397</guid>
		<dc:date>2019-06-23T22:43:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Espagne Espa&#241;a</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>P&#233;rou - Per&#249;</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Mexique</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Am&#233;rindiens</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Cort&#232;s trompant Moctezuma II, roi du Mexique &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Pizarro contre Atahualpa, roi du P&#233;rou &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
A ceux qui pr&#233;tendent que l'on ne savait pas, &#224; l'&#233;poque de la &#171; d&#233;couverte &#187; et de la &#171; conqu&#234;te &#187; occidentale du &#171; Nouveau Monde &#187;, des Am&#233;riques, quels crimes et quelles destructions, quel ethnocide, quel massacre de peuples et de richesses humaines, sociales et historiques, &#233;taient effectu&#233;s alors&#8230; et ont continu&#233; de l'&#234;tre pendant toute l'&#233;poque coloniale occidentale&#8230; &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Montaigne &#233;crivait dans ses &#171; (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


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&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique29" rel="directory"&gt;3&#232;me chapitre : R&#233;volutions bourgeoises et populaires&lt;/a&gt;

/ 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot28" rel="tag"&gt;Espagne Espa&#241;a&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot127" rel="tag"&gt;P&#233;rou - Per&#249;&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot128" rel="tag"&gt;Mexique&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot292" rel="tag"&gt;Am&#233;rindiens&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


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&lt;p&gt;Cort&#232;s trompant Moctezuma II, roi du Mexique&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;Pizarro contre Atahualpa, roi du P&#233;rou&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;A ceux qui pr&#233;tendent que l'on ne savait pas, &#224; l'&#233;poque de la &#171; d&#233;couverte &#187; et de la &#171; conqu&#234;te &#187; occidentale du &#171; Nouveau Monde &#187;, des Am&#233;riques, quels crimes et quelles destructions, quel ethnocide, quel massacre de peuples et de richesses humaines, sociales et historiques, &#233;taient effectu&#233;s alors&#8230; et ont continu&#233; de l'&#234;tre pendant toute l'&#233;poque coloniale occidentale&#8230;&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Montaigne &#233;crivait dans ses &#171; Essais &#187; (Livre III, chapitre VI) sur la conqu&#234;te espagnole et portugaise des Am&#233;riques :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Notre monde vient d'en trouver un autre (et qui nous r&#233;pond si c'est le dernier de ses fr&#232;res, puisque les D&#233;mons, les Sibylles, et nous, avons ignor&#233; celui-ci jusqu'&#224; cette heure ?) non moins grand, plein, et vigoureux que lui : toutefois si nouveau et si enfant, qu'on lui apprend encore son a, b, c : Il n'y a pas cinquante ans, qu'il ne savait, ni lettres, ni poids, ni mesure, ni v&#234;tements, ni bl&#233;s, ni vignes. Il &#233;tait encore tout nu, au giron, et ne vivait que des moyens de sa m&#232;re nourrice. Si nous concluons bien, de notre fin, et ce Po&#232;te de la jeunesse de son si&#232;cle, cet autre monde ne fera qu'entrer en lumi&#232;re, quand le notre en sortira. L'univers tombera en paralysie : l'un membre sera perclus, l'autre en pleine vigueur. Bien que, je le crains, nous n'ayons bien fort h&#226;t&#233; son d&#233;clin et sa ruine par notre contagion, et que nous lui ayons bien cher vendu nos opinions et nos arts.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;C'&#233;tait un monde enfant ; si nous ne l'avons pas f&#234;t&#233; et soumis &#224; notre discipline par l'avantage de notre valeur et de nos forces naturelles, ni n'avons agi par notre justice et bont&#233;, ni subjugu&#233; par notre magnanimit&#233;. La plupart de leurs r&#233;ponses et des n&#233;gociations faites avec eux t&#233;moignent qu'ils ne nous devaient rien en clart&#233; d'esprit naturelle et en pertinence.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'&#233;tonnante magnificence des villes de Cuzco et de Mexico, et, entre plusieurs choses pareilles, le jardin de ce Roi o&#249; tous les arbres, les fruits et toutes les herbes, selon l'ordre et grandeur qu'ils ont en un jardin, &#233;taient excellemment form&#233;es en or ; comme, en son cabinet, tous les animaux qui naissaient en son &#233;tat et en ses mers ; et la beaut&#233; de leurs ouvrages en pierreries, en plume, en coton, en peinture, montrent qu'ils ne nous c&#233;daient pas non plus dans l'industrie. Mais, quant &#224; la d&#233;votion, &#224; l'observance des lois, &#224; la bont&#233;, &#224; la lib&#233;ralit&#233;, &#224; la loyaut&#233;, &#224; la franchise, il nous a bien servi de n'en avoir pas autant qu'eux : ils se sont perdus par cet avantage, et vendus, et trahis eux-m&#234;mes. Quant &#224; la hardiesse et au courage, quant &#224; la fermet&#233;, la constance, la r&#233;solution contre les douleurs et la faim et la mort, je ne craindrais pas d'opposer les exemples que je trouverais parmi eux aux plus fameux exemples anciens que nous ayons eu en m&#233;moire dans notre monde par de&#231;&#224;. Car, pour ceux qui les ont subjugu&#233;s, qu'ils utilisent les ruses et mensonges par lesquels ils se sont servis &#224; les piper, et le juste &#233;tonnement qu'apportait &#224; ces nations l&#224; de voir arriver si inopin&#233;ment des gens barbus, divers en langage, religion, en forme et en contenance, d'un endroit du monde si &#233;loign&#233; et o&#249; ils n'avaient jamais imagin&#233; qu'il y eu une habitation quelconque, mont&#233;s sur des grands monstres inconnus, contre ceux qui n'avaient non seulement jamais vu de cheval, mais de b&#234;te quelconque capable de porter et soutenir un homme ni une autre charge ; garnis d'une peau luisante et dure et d'une arme tranchante et resplendissante, contre ceux qui, pour le miracle de la lueur d'un miroir ou d'un couteau, allaient &#233;changeant une grande richesse en or et en perles, et qui n'avaient ni science ni mati&#232;re par o&#249; tout &#224; loisir ils sussent percer notre acier ; ajoutez-y les foudres et tonnerres de nos pi&#232;ces &#224; feu et arquebuses, capables de troubler C&#233;sar lui-m&#234;me, s&#8216;il &#233;tait aussi surpris et inexp&#233;riment&#233;, et &#224; cette heure, contre des peuples nus, si ce n'est o&#249; l'invention &#233;tait arriv&#233;e de quelque tissu de coton, sans autres armes que des arcs, des pierres, des b&#226;tons et des boucliers de bois ; des peuples surpris, sous couleur d'amiti&#233; et de bonne foi, par la curiosit&#233; de voir des choses &#233;trang&#232;res et inconnues : contez, dis-je, aux conqu&#233;rants cette disparit&#233;, vous leur &#244;tez toute l'occasion de tant de victoires.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Quand je regarde cette ardeur indomptable avec laquelle tant de milliers d'hommes, femmes et enfants, se pr&#233;sentent et se jettent tant de fois dans des dangers in&#233;vitables, pour la d&#233;fense de leurs dieux et de leur libert&#233; ; cette g&#233;n&#233;reuse obstination de souffrir toutes extr&#233;mit&#233;s et difficult&#233;s, et la mort, plus volontiers que de se soumettre &#224; la domination de ceux de qui ont &#233;t&#233; si honteusement abus&#233;s, et tous choisissant plut&#244;t de se laisser d&#233;faillir par la faim et par le je&#251;ne, une fois pris, que d'accepter la nourriture des mains de leurs ennemis, victorieux d'une mani&#232;re aussi vile, je pr&#233;vois que, celui qui les aurait attaqu&#233; d'&#233;gal &#224; &#233;gal, et d'armes, et d'exp&#233;rience, et de nombre, cela eu &#233;t&#233; aussi dangereux, et m&#234;me plus, qu'en une autre guerre que nous voyons. Que n'est tomb&#233;e sous Alexandre ou sous ces anciens Grecs et Romains une si noble conqu&#234;te, et une si grande mutation et alt&#233;ration de tant d'empires et de peuples sous des mains qui eussent doucement poli et d&#233;frich&#233; ce qu'il y avait de sauvage, et eussent confort&#233; et promu les bonnes semences que la nature y avait produit, m&#234;lant non seulement &#224; la culture des terres et &#224; l'ornement des villes les arts de de&#231;&#224;, en tant qu'elles y eussent &#233;t&#233; n&#233;cessaires, mais aussi m&#234;lant les vertus Grecques et Romaines &#224; celles originelles du pays ! Quelle r&#233;paration cela aurait &#233;t&#233;, et quel amendement &#224; toute cette machine, que les premiers exemples et d&#233;portements n&#244;tres qui se sont pr&#233;sent&#233;s par la suite eussent appel&#233; ces peuples &#224; l'admiration et &#224; l'imitation de la vertu et eussent dress&#233; entre eux et nous une fraternelle soci&#233;t&#233; et intelligence !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Combien il aurait &#233;t&#233; ais&#233; de faire son profit d'&#226;mes si neuves, si affam&#233;es d'apprentissage, ayant pour la plupart de si beaux commencements naturels ! Au contraire, nous nous sommes servis de leur ignorance et de leur inexp&#233;rience pour les plier plus facilement vers la trahison, la luxure, l'avarice et vers toute sorte d'inhumanit&#233;s et de cruaut&#233;s, &#224; l'exemple et suivant le patron de nos propres m&#339;urs. Qui mit jamais &#224; tel prix le service du mercantilisme et du trafic ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tant de villes ras&#233;es, tant de nations extermin&#233;es, tant de millions de peuples pass&#233;s au fil de l'&#233;p&#233;e, et la plus riche et belle partie du monde boulevers&#233;e pour la n&#233;gociation des perles et du poivre : victoires sans &#226;me. Jamais l'ambition, jamais les inimiti&#233;s publiques ne pouss&#232;rent les hommes les uns contre les autres &#224; de si horribles hostilit&#233;s et calamit&#233;s si mis&#233;rables.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En c&#244;toyant la mer &#224; la qu&#234;te de leurs mines, aucun Espagnol ne prit terre en une contr&#233;e fertile et plaisante, fort habit&#233;e, et ne fit &#224; ce peuple les remarques accoutum&#233;es : Qu'ils &#233;taient gens paisibles, venant de lointains voyages, envoy&#233;s de la part du Roi de Castille, le plus grand Prince de la terre habitable, auquel le Pape, repr&#233;sentant Dieu sur terre, avait donn&#233; la principaut&#233; de toutes les Indes ; Que, s'ils voulaient lui &#234;tre tributaires, ils seraient tr&#232;s b&#233;nignement trait&#233;s ; leur demandaient des vivres pour leur nourriture et de l'or pour le besoins de quelque m&#233;decine ; leur remontraient au demeurant la cr&#233;ance d'un seul Dieu et la v&#233;rit&#233; de notre religion, laquelle ils leur conseillaient d'accepter, y ajoutant quelques menaces.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La r&#233;ponse fut telle : Que, quand &#224; &#234;tre paisibles, ils n'en portaient pas la mine, s'ils l'&#233;taient ; Quand &#224; leur Roi, puisqu'il demandait, il devait &#234;tre indigent et n&#233;cessiteux ; et celui qui lui avait fait cette distribution, homme aimant la dissension, d'aller donner &#224; un tiers une chose qui n'&#233;tait pas la sienne, pour le mettre en d&#233;bat contre les anciens possesseurs ; Quant aux vivres, qu'ils leur en fourniraient ; D'or, ils en avaient peu, et que c'&#233;tait chose qu'ils mettaient en nulle estime, d'autant qu'elle &#233;tait inutile au service de leur vie, l&#224; o&#249; tout leur soin regardait seulement &#224; la passer heureusement et plaisamment ; pourtant ce qu'ils en pourraient trouver, sauf ce qui &#233;tait employ&#233; au service de leurs dieux, qu'ils le prissent hardiment ; Quant &#224; un seul Dieu, le discours leur en avait plu, mais qu'ils ne voulaient pas changer leur religion, s'en &#233;tant si utilement servis si longtemps, et qu'ils n'avaient pas accoutum&#233; de prendre conseil d'autres que de leurs amis et leurs connaissances ; Quant aux menaces, c'&#233;tait un signe de faute de jugement d'aller mena&#231;ant ceux desquels la nature et les moyens &#233;taient inconnus ; Ainsi qu'ils se d&#233;p&#234;chent promptement de quitter leur terre, car ils n'&#233;taient pas accoutum&#233;s de prendre en bonne part les honn&#234;tet&#233;s et remontrances de gens arm&#233;s et &#233;trangers ; autrement, qu'on ferait d'eux comme de ces autres, leur montrant les t&#234;tes d'aucuns hommes condamn&#233;s autour de leur ville.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Voil&#224; un exemple du balbutiement de cette enfance. Mais, ni en ce lieu l&#224;, ni en plusieurs autres o&#249; les Espagnols ne trouv&#232;rent pas les marchandises qu'ils cherchaient, ils n'arr&#234;t&#232;rent ni leur entreprise, ni quelqu'autre action qu'il y eut, t&#233;moins les actes de mes Cannibales. Des deux plus puissants monarques de ce monde, et, &#224; l'aventure, de celui-ci, Rois de tant de Rois, les derniers qu'ils en chass&#232;rent, celui du P&#233;rou, ayant &#233;t&#233; pris en une bataille et soumis &#224; une ran&#231;on si excessive qu'elle surpasse toute cr&#233;ance, et celle-l&#224; fid&#232;lement pay&#233;e, et avoir donn&#233; par sa conversation signe d'un courage franc, lib&#233;ral et constant, et d'un entendement net et bien compos&#233;, il prit envie aux vainqueurs, apr&#232;s en avoir tir&#233; un million trois cent vingt cinq mille cinq cent pesants d'or, outre l'argent et autres choses qui ne mont&#232;rent pas moins, si que leurs chevaux n'allaient plus ferr&#233;s que d'or massif, de voir encore, au prix de quelque d&#233;loyaut&#233; que ce fut, quel pouvait &#234;tre le reste des tr&#233;sors de ce Roi, et jouir librement de ce qu'il avait conserv&#233;. On lui envoya une fausse accusation et preuve, selon laquelle il tentait de faire soulever ses provinces pour se remettre en libert&#233;. Sur quoi, par un beau jugement de ceux-l&#224; m&#234;mes qui lui avaient dress&#233; cette trahison, on le condamna &#224; &#234;tre pendu et &#233;trangl&#233; publiquement, lui ayant fait racheter le tourment d'&#234;tre br&#251;l&#233; tout vif par le bapt&#234;me qu'on lui donna au supplice m&#234;me. Accident horrible et inou&#239;, qu'il souffrit pourtant sans se d&#233;mentir ni de contenance ni de parole, d'une mani&#232;re et avec une gravit&#233; vraiment Royale. Et puis, pour endormir les peuples &#233;tonn&#233;s et saisis de choses si &#233;tranges, on contrefit un grand deuil de sa mort, et lui ordonna des fun&#233;railles somptueuses. L'autre, Roi de Mexico, ayant longtemps d&#233;fendu sa ville assi&#233;g&#233;e et montr&#233; en ce si&#232;ge tout ce que peut et la souffrance et la pers&#233;v&#233;rance, si jamais prince et peuple la montra, et son malheur l'ayant rendu vif entre les mains des ennemis, avec capitulation d'&#234;tre trait&#233; en Roi (aussi ne leur fit-il rien voir, en sa prison, indigne de ce titre) ; ne trouvant pas apr&#232;s cette victoire tout l'or qu'ils s'&#233;taient promis, apr&#232;s avoir tout remu&#233; et tout fouill&#233;, se mirent &#224; en chercher de nouveau par les plus violentes tortures qu'ils purent imaginer, sur les prisonniers qu'ils tenaient. Mais, n'en ayant en rien tir&#233; profit, trouvant face &#224; eux des courages plus forts que leurs tourments, ils en vinrent enfin &#224; une telle rage que, contre leur foi et contre tout droit des gens, ils condamn&#232;rent le Roi m&#234;me et l'un des principaux seigneurs de sa cours &#224; la torture en pr&#233;sence l'un de l'autre. Ce seigneur, se trouvant forc&#233; par la douleur, environn&#233; de brasiers ardents, tourna sur la fin piteusement sa vue vers son ma&#238;tre, comme pour lui demander pardon de ce qu'il n'en pouvait plus. Le Roi, plantant fi&#232;rement et rigoureusement les yeux sur lui, pour lui reprocher de sa l&#226;chet&#233; et pusillanimit&#233;, lui dit seulement ces mots, d'une voix rude et ferme : Et moi, suis-je dans un bain ? Ne suis-je pas plus &#224; mon aise que toi ? Celui-l&#224;, soudain apr&#232;s, succomba aux douleurs et mourut sur la place. Le Roi, &#224; demi grill&#233;, fut emport&#233; de l&#224;, non tant par piti&#233; (car quelle piti&#233; toucha jamais des &#226;mes qui, pour la douteuse information de quelque vase d'or &#224; piller, auraient fait griller devant leurs yeux un homme, et m&#234;me un Roi si grand, et en fortune et en m&#233;rite), mais ce fut sa constance qui rendit de plus en plus honteuse leur cruaut&#233;. Ils le pendirent ensuite, ayant courageusement entrepris de se d&#233;livrer par les armes d'une si longue captivit&#233; et suj&#233;tion, faisant ainsi une fin digne d'un magnanime prince. Une autre fois, ils mirent &#224; br&#251;ler pour un coup, dans le m&#234;me feu, quatre cent soixante hommes tous vivants, les quatre cent issus du commun du peuple, les soixante des principaux seigneurs d'une province, prisonniers de guerre simplement. Nous tenons des criminels eux-m&#234;mes ces narrations, car ils ne les avouent pas seulement, ils s'en vantent et les pr&#234;chent. Serait-ce pour t&#233;moignage de leur justice ou de leur z&#232;le envers la religion ? Certes, ce sont voies trop diverses et ennemies d'une si sainte fin. S'ils se fussent propos&#233;s d'&#233;tendre notre foi, ils eussent consid&#233;r&#233; que ce n'est pas en possession de terres qu'elle s'amplifie, mais en possession d'hommes, et se fussent bien content&#233;s des meurtres que la n&#233;cessit&#233; de la guerre apporte, sans y m&#234;ler indiff&#233;remment une boucherie universelle, comme sur des b&#234;tes sauvages, autant que le fer et le feu y ont pu &#233;liminer, n'en ayant conserv&#233; par leur dessein qu'autant qu'ils en ont voulu faire de mis&#233;rables esclaves pour l'ouvrage et service de leurs exploitations mini&#232;res.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Si bien que plusieurs des chefs ont &#233;t&#233; punis &#224; mort, sur les lieux de leur conqu&#234;te, par ordonnance des Rois de Castille, justement offens&#233;s de l'horreur de leurs comportements, et quasi tous disgraci&#233;s et punis. Dieu a m&#233;ritoirement permis que ces grands pillards soient coul&#233;s en mer pendant le transport, ou par les guerres intestines par lesquels ils se sont entremang&#233;s entre eux, et la plupart s'enterr&#232;rent sur les lieux, sans recevoir aucun fruit de leur victoire. Quant &#224; ce que la recette, entre les mains d'un prince r&#233;fl&#233;chi et prudent, r&#233;pond si peu &#224; l'esp&#233;rance qu'on en donna &#224; ses pr&#233;d&#233;cesseurs, et &#224; cette premi&#232;re abondance de richesses qu'on rencontra &#224; l'abord de ces nouvelles terres (car, encore qu'on en retire beaucoup, nous voyons que ce n'est rien au prix de ce qui s'en devait attendre), c'est que l'usage de la monnaie &#233;tait enti&#232;rement inconnu, et que, par cons&#233;quent, leur or se trouvait tout assembl&#233;, n'&#233;tant en autre service que de montre et de parade, comme un meuble r&#233;serv&#233; de p&#232;re en fils par plusieurs puissants Rois, qui &#233;puisaient toujours leurs mines pour faire ce grand monceau de vases et statues &#224; l'ornement de leurs palais et de leurs temples, au lieu que notre or est tout en exploitation et en commerce. Nous le menuisons et l'alt&#233;rons sous mille formes, le travaillons et le dispersons. Imaginons que nos Rois amoncelassent ainsi tout l'or qu'ils pourraient trouver en plusieurs si&#232;cles, et le gardent immobile.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ceux du Royaume de Mexico &#233;taient aucunement plus civilis&#233;s et plus artistes que n'&#233;taient les autres nations de ce monde. Aussi jugeaient-ils, ainsi que nous, que l'univers &#233;tait proche de sa fin, et en prirent pour signe la d&#233;solation que nous y apport&#226;mes. Ils croyaient que l'&#234;tre du monde se divise en cinq &#226;ges et en la vie de cinq soleils cons&#233;cutifs, desquels les quatre avaient d&#233;j&#224; pass&#233; leur temps, et que celui qui les &#233;clairait &#233;tait le cinqui&#232;me. Le premier avait p&#233;ri avec toutes les autres cr&#233;atures par une universelle inondation d'eaux ; le second, par la chute du ciel sur nous, qui &#233;touffa toute chose vivante, auquel &#226;ge ils assign&#232;rent les g&#233;ants, et en firent voir aux Espagnols des ossements &#224; la proportion desquels la stature des hommes revenait &#224; vingt paumes de hauteur ; le troisi&#232;me, par le feu qui embrasa et consuma tout ; le quatri&#232;me par un mouvement violent d'air et de vent qui abattit jusqu'&#224; plusieurs montagnes : les hommes n'en moururent point, mais ils furent chang&#233;s en magots (quelles impressions ne souffre la l&#226;chet&#233; de l'humaine croyance !) ; apr&#232;s la mort de ce quatri&#232;me Soleil, le monde fut vingt-cinq ans en perp&#233;tuelles t&#233;n&#232;bres, au quinzi&#232;me desquels fut cr&#233;&#233; un homme et une femme qui refirent l'humaine race ; dix ans apr&#232;s, &#224; certain de leurs jours, le Soleil parut nouvellement cr&#233;&#233; ; et commence, depuis, le compte de leurs ann&#233;es &#224; partir de ce jour l&#224;. Le troisi&#232;me jour de sa cr&#233;ation, moururent les Dieux anciens ; les nouveaux sont n&#233;s depuis. Ce qu'ils estiment de la mani&#232;re par laquelle ce dernier Soleil p&#233;rira, mon auteur n'en a rien appris. Mais leur datation de ce quatri&#232;me changement est reli&#233; &#224; cette grande conjonction des astres qui produisit, il y a huit cent et quelques ann&#233;es, selon que les Astrologues estiment, plusieurs grandes alt&#233;rations et nouveaut&#233;s au monde. Quant &#224; la pompe et la magnificence, par o&#249; je suis entr&#233; en ce propos, ni Gr&#232;ce, ni Rome, ni Egypte ne peuvent &#234;tre compar&#233;s, que ce soit en utilit&#233;, en difficult&#233;, ou en noblesse, aucun de ses ouvrages n'est comparable au chemin qui se voit au P&#233;rou, dress&#233; par les Rois du pays, depuis la ville de Quito jusqu'&#224; celle de Cuzco (il y a trois cent lieues), un chemin tout droit, uni, large de vingt-cinq pas, pav&#233;, rev&#234;tu d'un c&#244;t&#233; et de l'autre de belles et hautes murailles, et le long de celles-ci, par le dedans, deux ruisseaux p&#233;rennes, bord&#233;s de beaux arbres qu'ils nomment molly. O&#249; ils ont trouv&#233; des montagnes et rochers, qu'ils ont taill&#233;s et aplanis, et combl&#233; les fondri&#232;res de pierre et chaux. A l'&#233;tape de chaque journ&#233;e de trajet, il y a de beaux palais fournis de vivres, de v&#234;tements et d'armes, tant pour les voyageurs que pour les arm&#233;es qui ont &#224; y passer. En l'estimation de cet ouvrage, j'ai compt&#233; la difficult&#233;, qui est particuli&#232;rement consid&#233;rable en ce lieu l&#224;. Ils ne b&#226;tissaient pas avec de moindres pierres, mais seulement des pierres de dix pieds carr&#233; ; ils n'avaient pas d'autre moyen de charrier qu'&#224; force de bras, en trainant leur charge ; et pas seulement l'art d'&#233;chafauder, n'y sachant autre finesse que de hausser autant de terre contre leur b&#226;timent, comme il s'&#233;l&#232;ve, pour l'&#244;ter apr&#232;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Revenons &#224; nos carrosses. En leur place, et de toute autre voiture, ils se faisaient porter par les hommes et sur leurs &#233;paules. Ce dernier Roi du P&#233;rou, le jour qu'il fut pris, &#233;tait ainsi port&#233; sur des brancards d'or, et assis dans une chaise d'or, au milieu de ses soldats. Autant qu'on tuait de ces porteurs pour le faire choir &#224; bas, car on le voulait prendre vif, autant d'autres, et &#224; l'envi, prenaient la place des morts, de fa&#231;on qu'on ne le put jamais abattre, quelque meurtre qu'on fit de ces gens l&#224;, jusque &#224; ce qu'un homme &#224; cheval alla le saisir au corps, et le mis &#224; terre. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Essais/Livre_III/Chapitre_6&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Voltaire dans &#171; Des conspirations contre les peuples &#187; :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;MASSACRES DANS LE NOUVEAU MONDE&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Dans ce recensement de tant d'horreurs, mettons surtout les douze millions d'hommes d&#233;truits dans le vaste continent du nouveau monde. Cette proscription est &#224; l'&#233;gard de toutes les autres ce que serait l'incendie de la moiti&#233; de la terre &#224; celui de quelques villages.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Jamais ce malheureux globe n'&#233;prouva une d&#233;vastation plus horrible et plus g&#233;n&#233;rale, et jamais crime ne fut mieux prouv&#233;. Las Casas, &#233;v&#234;que de Chiapa dans la Nouvelle-Espagne, ayant parcouru pendant plus de trente ann&#233;es les &#238;les et la terre ferme d&#233;couvertes avant qu'il f&#251;t &#233;v&#234;que, et depuis qu'il eut cette dignit&#233;, t&#233;moin oculaire de ces trente ann&#233;es de destruction, vint enfin en Espagne, dans sa vieillesse, se jeter aux pieds de Charles- Quint et du prince Philippe son fils, et fit entendre ses plaintes, qu'on n'avait pas &#233;cout&#233;es jusqu'alors. Il pr&#233;senta sa requ&#234;te au nom d'un h&#233;misph&#232;re entier : elle fut imprim&#233;e &#224; Valladolid. La cause de plus de cinquante nations proscrites, dont il ne subsistait que de faibles restes, fut solennellement plaid&#233;e devant l'empereur. Las Casas dit que ces peuples d&#233;truits &#233;taient d'une esp&#232;ce douce, faible et innocente, incapable de nuire et de r&#233;sister, et que la plupart ne connaissaient pas plus les v&#234;tements et les armes que nos animaux domestiques. &#171; J'ai parcouru, dit-il, toutes les petites &#238;les Lucaies, et je n'y ai trouv&#233; que onze habitants, reste de cinq cent mille. &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Il compte ensuite plus de deux millions d'hommes d&#233;truits dans Cuba et dans Hispaniola, et enfin plus de dix millions dans le continent. Il ne dit pas : &#171; J'ai ou&#239; dire qu'on a exerc&#233; ces &#233;normit&#233;s incroyables ; &#187; ! Il dit : &#171; Je les ai vues ; j'ai vu cinq caciques br&#251;l&#233;s pour s'&#234;tre enfuis avec leurs sujets ; j'ai vu ces cr&#233;atures innocentes massacr&#233;es par milliers ; enfin, de mon temps, on a d&#233;truit plus de douze millions d'hommes dans l'Am&#233;rique. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;On ne lui contesta pas cette &#233;trange d&#233;population, quelque incroyable qu'elle paraisse. Le docteur Sepulv&#233;da, qui plaidait contre lui, s'attacha seulement &#224; prouver que tous ces Indiens m&#233;ritaient la mort, parce qu'ils &#233;taient coupal3les du p&#233;ch&#233; contre nature, et qu'ils &#233;taient anthropophages.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Je prends Dieu &#224; t&#233;moin, r&#233;pond le digne &#233;v&#234;que Las Casas, que vous calomniez ces innocents apr&#232;s les avoir &#233;gorg&#233;s. Non, ce n'&#233;tait point parmi eux que r&#233;gnait la p&#233;d&#233;rastie, et que l'horreur de manger de la chair humaine s'&#233;tait introduite ; il se peut que dans quelques contr&#233;es de l'Am&#233;rique que je ne connais pas, comme au Br&#233;sil ou dans quelques &#238;les, on ait pratiqu&#233; ces abominations de l'Europe ; mais ni &#224; Cuba, ni &#224; la Jama&#239;que, ni dans Hispaniola, ni dans aucune &#238;le que j'aie parcourue, ni au P&#233;rou, ni au Mexique, o&#249; est mon &#233;v&#234;ch&#233;, je n'ai jamais entendu parler de ces crimes, et j'en ai fait les enqu&#234;tes les plus exactes. C'est vous qui &#234;tes plus cruels que les anthropophages : car je vous ai vus dresser des chiens &#233;normes pour aller &#224; la chasse des hommes comme on va &#224; celle des b&#234;tes fauves. Je vous ai vus donner vos semblables &#224; d&#233;vorer &#224; vos chiens. J'ai entendu des Espagnols dire &#224; leurs camarades : a Pr&#234;te-moi une longe d'Indien pour le &#171; d&#233;jeuner de mes dogues, je t'en rendrai demain un quartier. &#187; C'est enfin chez vous seuls que j'ai vu de la chair humaine &#233;tal&#233;e dans vos boucheries, soit pour vos dogues, soit pour vous-m&#234;mes. Tout cela, continue-t-il, est prouv&#233; aux proc&#232;s, et je jure, par le grand Dieu qui m'&#233;coute, que rien n'est plus v&#233;ritable. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Enfin Las Casas obtint de Charles-Quint des lois qui arr&#234;t&#232;rent ,le carnage r&#233;put&#233; jusqu'alors l&#233;gitime, attendu que c'&#233;taient des chr&#233;tiens qui massacraient des infid&#232;les. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Des_conspirations_contre_les_peuples/%C3%89dition_Garnier&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Diderot dans l'Histoire des deux Indes :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Que les nations europ&#233;ennes se jugent et se donnent &#224; elles-m&#234;mes le nom qu&#180;elles m&#233;ritent. Leurs navigateurs arrivent-ils dans une .r&#233;gion du Nouveau Monde qui n&#180;est occup&#233;e par aucun peuple de l&#180;ancien, aussit&#244;t ils enfouissent une petite lame de m&#233;tal, sur laquelle ils ont grav&#233; ces mots : CETTE CONTR&#201;E NOUS APPARTIENT. Et pourquoi vous appartient-elle ? N&#180;&#234;tes-vous pas aussi injustes, aussi insens&#233;s que des sauvages port&#233;s par hasard sur vos c&#244;tes, s&#180;ils &#233;crivaient sur le sable de votre rivage ou sur l&#180;&#233;corce de vos arbres ; CE PAYS EST A NOUS ? Vous n&#180;avez aucun droit sur les productions insensibles et brutes de la terre o&#249; vous abordez, et vous vous en arrogez un sur l&#180;homme votre semblable. Au lieu de reconna&#238;tre dans cet homme un fr&#232;re, vous n&#180;y voyez qu&#180;un esclave, une b&#234;te de somme. &#212; mes concitoyens ! vous pensez ainsi, vous en usez de cette mani&#232;re ; et vous avez des notions de justice ; une morale, une religion sainte, une m&#232;re commune avec ceux que vous traitez si tyranniquement &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k106608q/f17.image.r=diderot%20conqu%C3%AAte%20espagnole%20du%20nouveau%20monde%20histoire%20des%20deux%20indes&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Source&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Montesquieu dans &#034;Lettres persanes&#034; :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Les Espagnols, d&#233;sesp&#233;rant de retenir les nations vaincues dans la fid&#233;lit&#233;, prirent le parti de les exterminer et d'y envoyer d'Espagne des peuples fid&#232;les. Jamais dessein horrible ne fut plus ponctuellement ex&#233;cut&#233;. On vit un peuple [am&#233;rindien] aussi nombreux que tous ceux de l'Europe ensemble dispara&#238;tre de la Terre &#224; l'arriv&#233;e de ces barbares qui sembl&#232;rent, en d&#233;couvrant les Indes, n'avoir pens&#233; qu'&#224; d&#233;couvrir aux hommes quel &#233;tait le dernier p&#233;riode [c'est-&#224;-dire le plus haut degr&#233;] de la cruaut&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Par cette barbarie, ils [les Espagnols] conserv&#232;rent ce pays sous leur domination. [...] Ce rem&#232;de affreux &#233;tait unique. [...]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Quel prince envierait le sort de ces conqu&#233;rants ? Qui voudrait de ces conqu&#234;tes &#224; ce prix ? &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Les colonisateurs (exploiteurs, oppresseurs, dictateurs, assassins, voleurs, tueurs, tortionnaires qui se sont eux-m&#234;mes intitul&#233;s civilisateurs, christianisateurs, pacificateurs, humanisateurs, explorateurs ou &#171; conqu&#233;rants &#187;) espagnols des peuples indiens d'Am&#233;rique devenue &#171; latine &#187; n'avaient nullement l'excuse de croire honn&#234;tement que les Indiens &#233;taient des barbares, des cannibales ou des animaux sans &#226;me !!!&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Non ! Ils n'&#233;taient pas ignorants qu'ils &#233;crasaient, assassinaient, torturaient des &#234;tres humains, d&#233;truisaient les fondateurs de civilisations prosp&#232;res et florissantes de ce qu'ils appelaient &#171; les Indes &#187; ou &#171; le Nouveau Monde &#187; et qui &#233;taient les Am&#233;riques.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ils ne l'ignoraient pas puisque certains d'entre eux, tr&#232;s rares certes, d&#233;non&#231;aient publiquement, par la parole et par l'&#233;crit, ces mensonges et les actes criminels qu'ils cherchaient &#224; couvrir. Certains, comme Bartolomeo de Las Casas, &#233;taient m&#234;me parvenus &#224; toucher l'oreille du roi, de l'Eglise, des classes poss&#233;dantes espagnoles, sans toutefois parvenir &#224; contrer l'attrait puissant de l'or et de l'argent ni &#224; modifier profond&#233;ment la politique criminelle du colonialisme espagnol en Am&#233;rique centrale et en Am&#233;rique du sud.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas n'avait pas &#233;t&#233; le seul ni le premier. Il avait &#233;t&#233; influenc&#233; par le discours cinglant du missionnaire dominicain espagnol Antonio de Montesinos en 1511 dans une &#233;glise de Saint Domingue, l'&#238;le colonis&#233;e par les &#171; conqu&#233;rants &#187; Espagnols :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Vous &#234;tes tous en &#233;tat de p&#233;ch&#233; mortel &#224; cause de votre cruaut&#233; envers une race innocente. Dites moi quelle justice vous autorise &#224; maintenir les Indiens dans une si affreuse servitude ? De quel droit avez-vous engag&#233; une guerre atroce contre ces gens qui vivaient pacifiquement dans leur pays ? Pourquoi les laissez-vous dans un tel &#233;tat d'&#233;puisement, avec un travail qui les accable ?... Ne sont-ils pas des hommes ? N'ont-ils pas une raison et une &#226;me ? &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le pr&#234;tre dominicain annon&#231;ait qu'il refuserait l'absolution de tous ceux qui refuseraient de restituer leurs biens aux Indiens et de cesser de les torturer et de les surexploiter. C'est exactement ce que Las Casas allait faire, se battant ouvertement et violemment contre les colons et les militaires.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas rapporte dans son &#171; Histoire des Indiens &#187; que ce sont ces dominicains qui l'ont convaincu :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Alors que je vivais dans cette &#238;le espagnole (d'Hispaniola) et y poss&#233;dais des Indiens, aveugl&#233; comme je l'&#233;tais &#224; ce sujet, un religieux dominicain refusa de me confesser&#8230; Apr&#232;s avoir r&#233;fl&#233;chi pendant plusieurs jours et m'&#234;tre affermi de plus en plus, par des lectures appropri&#233;es, sur le droit et le fait, une conviction s'&#233;tablit en moi : tout ce qui se commettait aux Indes (c'est-&#224;-dire Am&#233;rique du sud et Am&#233;rique latine) vis-&#224;-vis des Indiens &#233;tait injuste et tyrannique&#8230; Finalement, je d&#233;cidais de pr&#234;cher l&#224;-dessus. Et, afin de pouvoir d&#233;noncer librement comme injustes et tyranniques le syst&#232;me des &#171; repartimientos &#187;, je d&#233;cidai de renoncer aussit&#244;t aux Indiens que je poss&#233;dais, et de les remettre entre les mains du gouverneur Diego Vel&#224;squez&#8230; Le gouverneur resta stup&#233;fait d'entendre une chose aussi monstrueuse : voir ce clerc m&#234;l&#233; aux choses du monde se ranger &#224; l'opinion des fr&#232;res dominicains et oser la rendre publique&#8230; Ceux qui entendirent le pr&#234;che leur apprenant que j'avais renonc&#233; &#224; mes Indiens, &#224; mes terres, &#224; mes mines, que j'avais redonn&#233; la libert&#233; &#224; mes Indiens, pleinement conscient du p&#233;ril o&#249; &#233;tait le salut de mon &#226;me, &#233;taient stup&#233;faits, comme si j'avais d&#233;clar&#233; qu'ils n'avaient pas le droit d'exploiter des animaux. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas rapporte dans son &#171; Histoire des Indes &#187; sa rencontre avec Cort&#232;s :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Je lui reprochais d'avoir usurp&#233; la royaut&#233; de Moctezuma et d'avoir tromp&#233; les Indiens pour les battre... Il me le conc&#233;da en riant, et moi je pleurais au-dedans de moi en voyant sa froide insensibilit&#233;. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En 1531, l'&#233;v&#234;que de Mexico, le franciscain Zum&#224;rraga, nomm&#233; &#171; protecteur des pauvres Indiens &#187;, &#233;crivait au roi d'Espagne et empereur Charles Quint :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Je pense que toute cette terre pourrait se conqu&#233;rir de mani&#232;re apostolique en interdisant aux Espagnols, sous peine de mort, d'entrer en armes dans les villages&#8230; &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le 17 septembre 1516, les Rois Catholiques nomment Las Casas &#171; protecteur des Indiens &#187; et lui donnent des pouvoirs pour agir en faveur des Indiens. Cela ne les emp&#234;che pas de laisser aussi les grands seigneurs espagnols se tailler des fiefs et des fortunes sur le dos des Indiens&#8230; De retour dans le Nouveau Monde, Las Casas ne devait en r&#233;alit&#233; recevoir le soutien que des Dominicains et Franciscains, et nullement des autres religieux, des autorit&#233;s et il recueillait la violente haine des colons qui faillirent le tuer.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas ne cesse de rappeler aux souverains espagnols que les &#171; conqu&#233;rants espagnols &#187; ne font pas qu'exploiter les Indiens : ils les suppriment en masse&#8230; Rappelons que l'&#238;le de Saint Domingue que Las Casas a connue peupl&#233;e de trois millions et demi d'Indiens est pass&#233;e &#224;&#8230; z&#233;ro !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas n'est pas le seul. Le 8 novembre 1534, le dominicain Francisco de Vitoria &#233;crit :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Je ne vois aucun titre l&#233;gitime &#224; la guerre men&#233;e par l'Espagne dans l'empire inca. Si les Indiens ne sont pas des hommes mais des singes, ils ne sont pas capables de nous faire injure. Si ce sont des hommes et nos proches, si, comme ils s'en vantent eux-m&#234;mes, ils sont vassaux de l'Empereur, je ne vois aucun moyen d'&#233;viter de dire que ces conqu&#233;rants agissent avec la plus extr&#234;me impi&#233;t&#233; et sont des tyrans v&#233;ritables. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En 1553, le Conseil des Indes d&#233;nonce Las Casas comme un danger permanent :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; L'&#233;v&#234;que est un homme tr&#232;s efficace pour persuader. Il serait all&#233; jusqu'&#224; insinuer que tout ce que les Espagnols poss&#232;dent aux Indes a &#233;t&#233; usurp&#233; et vol&#233;, alors que les religieux eux-m&#234;mes reconnaissent que la souverainet&#233; de ces contr&#233;es appartient &#224; Votre Majest&#233;, il laisse entendre par toutes sortes de raisonnements qu'elle n'y peut rien poss&#233;der. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Quelques d&#233;clarations de Las Casas sont rest&#233;es fameuses :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Tout a &#233;t&#233; injuste dans la conqu&#234;te&#8230; &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(&#171; Instruction &#187; de Las Casas en 1514)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Les Indiens sont des hommes libres. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Introduction du m&#233;moire lu en s&#233;ance du Conseil royal d'Espagne &#224; la Cour de Valladolid le 11 d&#233;cembre 1517 &#8211; Rappelons que Las Casas avait c&#233;l&#233;br&#233; sa premi&#232;re messe dans le Nouveau Monde en 1510.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Ces peuples des Indes &#233;galent et m&#234;me surpassent beaucoup de nations du monde, r&#233;put&#233;es polic&#233;es et raisonnables : ils ne sont inf&#233;rieurs &#224; aucun&#8230; Devraient &#234;tre confondus comme d&#233;lateurs tous ceux qui les ont diffam&#233;s avec une t&#233;m&#233;rit&#233; peut-&#234;tre inexpiable&#8230; La plupart des nations du monde furent bien plus perverties, irrationnelles et d&#233;prav&#233;es&#8230; Nous-m&#234;mes, nous f&#251;mes bien pires du temps de nos anc&#234;tres, et sur toute l'&#233;tendue de notre Espagne, par la barbarie de notre vie et la d&#233;pravation de nos coutumes. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Premi&#232;res lignes du livre &#171; Histoire apolog&#233;tique &#187; de 1559)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Il y a soixante et une ann&#233;es que ces Indiens innocents sont vol&#233;s, tyrannis&#233;s, an&#233;antis&#8230; Jamais on n'a rem&#233;di&#233; &#224; cette situation. Au contraire, il est question d'y apporter une solution hypocrite&#8230; N'y aura-t-il personne qui puisse d&#233;tromper nos princes catholiques et leur montrer qu'ils n'ont pas le droit en cosncience de retirer la peau, la vie et l'&#226;me de ces Indiens pour subvenir aux besoins financiers de la Couronne d'Espagne ?... L'esclavage subsiste, m&#234;me s'il est d&#233;guis&#233; : quand quelqu'un vend ses domaines, ce qu'il vend d'essentiel, ce sont les Indiens. Ils les p&#232;sent comme s'ils &#233;taient des vaches de boucherie, ou porcs, ou tout autre b&#233;tail. Le seul rem&#232;de &#224; tant de maux r&#233;side dans la r&#233;vocation de tous les encomenderos&#8230; Le bien spirituel et temporel des Indiens doit passer avec les int&#233;r&#234;ts de l'Espagne&#8230; Les crimes de tous ces Espagnols qui vivent dans le p&#233;ch&#233; mortel jettent l'ignominie sur Dieu et sur la religion chr&#233;tienne. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(&#171; Grande Lettre &#187; &#233;crite en ao&#251;t 1555 par Las Casas &#224; Bartolom&#233; Carranza lorsque les colons du P&#233;rou offrent d'acheter le prince-r&#233;gent Philippe d'Espagne pour obtenir la concession des encomiendas &#224; perp&#233;tuit&#233;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Depuis le d&#233;but du genre humain, tous les hommes, de par le droit naturel, sont libres. La libert&#233; est identique pour tous&#8230; Le choix du souverain ne peut ali&#233;ner cette libert&#233;. En montant sur le tr&#244;ne, les rois pr&#234;tent serment de n'en rien faire. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Trait&#233; sur &#171; Le pouvoir du roi &#187; envoy&#233; par Las Casas &#224; Philippe II &#224; peine couronn&#233; roi d'Espagne en octobre 1555)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; La mainmise des Espagnols sur ces empires &#233;tait-elle l&#233;gale ?... Aucun roi, aucun seigneur, aucun village, aucun particulier de ce monde des Indes, depuis le premier jour de la d&#233;couverte, jusqu'&#224; aujourd'hui, le 30 avril 1562, n'a reconnu de fa&#231;on libre et l&#233;gitime nos illustres rois d'Espagne, comme seigneurs et suzerains, ni leurs envoy&#233;s et capitaines&#8230; Donc il n'est permis &#224; personne, pas m&#234;me au roi, sans l'accord de l'Inca, de chercher &#224; exhumer et emporter les tr&#233;sors et objets que ces gens ensevelissent avec leurs d&#233;funts&#8230; S'ils le font, ils commettent un p&#233;ch&#233; mortel. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Un des derniers trait&#233;s de Las Casas, intitul&#233; &#171; Des tr&#233;sors &#187; en avril 1562)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Les h&#233;ritiers d'Atahualpa sont parfaitement autoris&#233;s et l&#233;gitim&#233;s de mener de justes guerres contre tous les Espagnols&#8230; Les responsables de la royaut&#233; espagnole m&#233;ritent l'excommunication s'ils ne r&#233;int&#232;grent pas l'Inca dans ses anciens royaumes&#8230; C'est &#224; l'Inca de d&#233;cider s'il choisit de pardonner les injures et massacres inflig&#233;s dans le pass&#233; par les Espagnols. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(R&#233;ponse de Las Casas aux &#171; Douze doutes &#187;, janvier 1564)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Est-il licite de faire la guerre aux pa&#239;ens ?... Que le pape veuille bien faire un d&#233;cret portant excommunication de tous ceux qui justifient la guerre contre les infid&#232;les sous pr&#233;texte d'idol&#226;trie&#8230; &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(P&#233;tition au pape Pie V en 1565)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Moi qui, par bont&#233; et mis&#233;ricorde de Dieu, fus choisi, quoique indigne, pour d&#233;fendre toutes les nations que nous appelons indiennes contre les injures et vexations inou&#239;es que nous, Espagnols, leur avons inflig&#233;es au m&#233;pris de toute raison et justice&#8230; j'affirme que tous les maux inflig&#233;s par les Espagnols &#224; ces populations&#8230; ont souill&#233; gravement le nom de J&#233;sus-Christ et notre religion chr&#233;tienne. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Testament du 17 mars 1564)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Qui &#233;tait Bartolom&#233; de Las Casas&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Nous sommes autoris&#233;s &#224; affirmer que les Espagnols, par leurs traitements monstrueux et inhumains, ont extermin&#233; 12 millions d'hommes, femmes et enfants compris ; &#224; mon avis personnel, le nombre des indig&#232;nes disparus &#224; cette &#233;poque d&#233;passe m&#234;me les 15 millions&#8230;. Si les chr&#233;tiens ont tu&#233; et d&#233;truit tant et tant d'&#226;mes et de telle qualit&#233;, c'est seulement dans le but d'avoir de l'or, de se gonfler de richesses en tr&#232;s peu de temps et de s'&#233;lever &#224; de hautes positions disproportionn&#233;es &#224; leur personne. A cause de leur cupidit&#233; et de leur ambition insatiables, telles qu'il ne pouvait y en avoir de pire au monde, et parce que ces terres &#233;taient heureuses et riches, et ces gens si humbles, si patients et si facilement soumis, ils n'ont eu pour eux ni respect, ni consid&#233;ration, ni estime. (Je dis la v&#233;rit&#233; sur ce que je sais et ce que j'ai vu pendant tout ce temps.) Ils les ont trait&#233;s je ne dis pas comme des b&#234;tes (pl&#251;t &#224; Dieu qu'ils les eussent trait&#233;s et consid&#233;r&#233;s comme des b&#234;tes), mais pire que des b&#234;tes et moins que du fumier. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(&#171; Br&#232;ve Relation de la Destruction des Indes &#187;, &#233;crit en 1552)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Bartolom&#233; de Las Casas, &#8220;Un bref r&#233;cit de la destruction des Indiens&#8221; (1552) :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Chapitre I : Les cruaut&#233;s commises par les Espagnols en Am&#233;rique&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; L'Am&#233;rique a &#233;t&#233; d&#233;couverte en l'ann&#233;e 1492 puis habit&#233;e par les Espagnols, et une multitude d'entre eux s'y rendit ensuite venant de l'Espagne pendant quarante neuf ans. Leur premi&#232;re tentative a eu lieu sur l'&#238;le d'Hispaniola (Saint Domingue), qui poss&#232;de en fait un sol tr&#232;s fertile, et actuellement r&#233;put&#233;e pour sa dimension et sa longueur, contenant dans les 600 miles de pourtour : elle est de tous c&#244;t&#233;s entour&#233;e d'un nombre presque infini d'&#238;les, que nous avons trouv&#233;e si bien peupl&#233; d'Autochtones et d'&#201;trangers qu'il n'y a gu&#232;re de r&#233;gion dans l'univers fortifi&#233; qui ait autant d'habitants. Mais la terre ou le continent principal, distant de cette &#238;le de deux cent cinquante miles et plus, s'&#233;tend au-del&#224; des dix mille miles de long du bord de la mer, quelques terres y sont d&#233;j&#224; &#233;t&#233; d&#233;couvertes, et d'autres peuvent l'&#234;tre au fil du temps : Et une telle multitude de gens habite ces pays qu'on dirait que le Dieu tout puissant a rassembl&#233; et convoqu&#233; la majeure partie de l'humanit&#233; dans cette partie du monde.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Or, cette multitude infinie d'hommes est, par la cr&#233;ation de Dieu, d'une simplicit&#233; innocente, totalement d&#233;pourvue d'objet et oppos&#233;e &#224; toutes sortes d'artisanat, de subtilit&#233; et de malice, et de sujets tr&#232;s ob&#233;issants et loyaux &#224; leurs souverains autochtones ; et se comportent tr&#232;s patiemment, sommairement et tranquillement envers les Espagnols, &#224; qui ils sont soumis et par qui ils sont domin&#233;s ; de sorte qu'ils vivent enfin sans la moindre soif de vengeance, en laissant de c&#244;t&#233; tout contentieux, trouble et haine.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;C'est un peuple tr&#232;s tendre et eff&#233;min&#233;, au temp&#233;rament si bizarre et si mal &#233;quilibr&#233; qu'il est tout &#224; fait incapable d'effectuer des travaux forc&#233;s et que, en quelques ann&#233;es de tels travaux, l'un tombe malade et un autre expire bient&#244;t, de sorte que les enfants des princes et des seigneurs, qui parmi nous vivent avec une grande richesse et un faste d&#233;licieux, ne sont pas plus eff&#233;min&#233;s et tendres que les enfants de ces paysans : cette nation est tr&#232;s n&#233;cessiteuse et indigente, ne poss&#232;de pas grand chose, et par cons&#233;quent, n'a ni attitude hautaine, ni ambitieuse. Ils sont modestes dans leur mis&#232;re, comme les Saints P&#232;res dans leur vie frugale dans le d&#233;sert, connue sous le nom d'Ermites. Ils vont nus, n'ayant pas d'autre couverture que ce qui cache leurs pudeurs &#224; la vue. Un manteau velu, ou un manteau ample, ou un tissu grossier au plus, leur servent de v&#234;tement d'hiver le plus chaud. Ils se couchent sur un tapis grossier, et ceux qui ont le plus terre ou de fortunes, utilisent une couverture nou&#233;e aux quatre coins en guise de lits, que les habitants de l'&#238;le d'Hispaniola, dans leur propre idiome, terme Hammacks. Les hommes sont dociles. Les indig&#232;nes sont doux et capables de moralit&#233; ou de bont&#233;, tr&#232;s aptes &#224; recevoir les principes instill&#233;s de la religion catholique ; ils ne sont pas non plus oppos&#233;s &#224; la civilit&#233; et aux bonnes mani&#232;res, &#233;tant moins d&#233;compos&#233;s par la vari&#233;t&#233; des obstacles que le reste de l'humanit&#233; ; dans la mesure o&#249;, ayant aspir&#233; (si je puis m'exprimer ainsi) les tout premiers rudiments de la foi chr&#233;tienne, ils sont tellement transport&#233;s avec z&#232;le et fureur dans l'exercice des sacrements eccl&#233;siastiques et du service divin, que le m&#234;me Religioso est lui-m&#234;me, avoir besoin de la patience la plus grande et la plus signal&#233;e pour subir de tels transports extream. Et pour conclure, j'ai moi-m&#234;me entendu les Espagnols eux-m&#234;mes (qui n'osent pas assumer la confiance pour nier la bonne nature qui les pr&#233;dominait) d&#233;claraient qu'ils ne manquaient pas d'acquisition de la B&#233;atitude &#201;ternelle, mais de la seule connaissance et compr&#233;hension de la divinit&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les Espagnols ont attaqu&#233; pour la premi&#232;re fois ce mouton innocent, qualifi&#233; comme tel par le Tout-Puissant, comme il est dit, comme le feraient la plupart des cruels tigres, loups et lions affam&#233;s, n'&#233;tudiant rien sur ces Indiens pendant quarante ans, apr&#232;s leur premier d&#233;barquement, le massacre de ces malheureux, qu'ils ont abattu et harcel&#233; de mani&#232;re si inhumaine et barbare avec plusieurs sortes de tourments, encore jamais connus, ni entendus (dont vous aurez un compte-rendu dans le discours suivant) celui de trois millions de personnes qui vivaient &#224; Hispaniola m&#234;me n'y ont pour le moment qu'un vestige peu consid&#233;rable de moins de trois cents. M&#234;me l'&#238;le de Cuba, qui s'&#233;tend aussi loin que Rome de Valladolid en Espagne, est maintenant abandonn&#233;e, comme un d&#233;sert, et est enfouie dans ses propres ruines. Vous pouvez &#233;galement trouver les &#238;les de Saint-Jean et la Jama&#239;que, des lieux vastes et fertiles, devenus non peupl&#233;s et d&#233;sol&#233;s. Les &#238;les Lucayan du c&#244;t&#233; nord, adjacentes &#224; Hispaniola et &#224; Cuba, qui sont au nombre de soixante ou environ, ainsi que de celles plus connues sous le nom de Gigantic Isles, et d'autres, les plus infertiles, d&#233;passent le jardin royal de Sevil dans la f&#233;condit&#233;, un climat tr&#232;s sain et agr&#233;able, est maintenant d&#233;vast&#233; et inhabit&#233; ; et alors que, quand les Espagnols sont arriv&#233;s ici pour la premi&#232;re fois, environ cinq cent mille hommes y ont habit&#233;, ils sont maintenant attaqu&#233;s, certains massacr&#233;s, d'autres ravis par la force et la violence, pour travailler dans les mines d'Hispanioloa&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En ce qui concerne la terre ferme, nous sommes certainement satisfaits et assur&#233;s que les Espagnols, par leurs actions barbares et ex&#233;crables, ont absolument d&#233;peupl&#233; Dix Royaumes, plus que toute l'Espagne, ainsi que les Royaumes d'Aragon et du Portugal, disons au-dessus de mille milles, qui sont maintenant d&#233;vast&#233;s et d&#233;sol&#233;s, et sont absolument ruin&#233;s, alors qu'aucun autre pays n'&#233;tait plus peupl&#233;. Nous osons affirmer avec assurance que pendant la p&#233;riode des quarante ans, ils ont exerc&#233; leur tyrannie sanglante et d&#233;testable dans ces r&#233;gions, au-del&#224; de douze millions (des hommes, des femmes et des enfants qui travaillent en informatique) ont p&#233;ri sans m&#233;riter ; Je ne con&#231;ois pas non plus que je devrais d&#233;vier de la v&#233;rit&#233; en disant que plus de cinquante millions au total ont pay&#233; leur derni&#232;re dette envers la nature.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ceux qui sont arriv&#233;s dans ces &#238;les en provenance des r&#233;gions les plus recul&#233;es d'Espagne et qui se targuent du Nom des Chr&#233;tiens, ont dirig&#233; deux voies principalement pour l'extirpation et l'extermination de ce peuple de la surface de la Terre. Le premier de ces moyens &#233;tait une guerre injuste, sanglante et cruelle. L'autre &#233;tait la torture, en les mettant &#224; mort, pour ceux qui, jusque-l&#224;, avaient soif de sa libert&#233; ou &#233;taient con&#231;us pour recouvrer sa libert&#233;, et &#233;branler les cha&#238;nes d'une captivit&#233; si n&#233;faste...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Or, le but ultime et la port&#233;e qui ont incit&#233; les Espagnols &#224; s'efforcer d'extirpter et de d&#233;soler ce peuple, c'&#233;tait seulement l'or ; que, devenant ainsi opulents dans un court laps de temps, ils pourraient arriver imm&#233;diatement &#224; de tels degr&#233;s et &#224; telle ou telle dignit&#233;, de la m&#234;me mani&#232;re qu'aucune voie compatible avec leurs personnages.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Enfin, en un mot, leur ambition et leur avarice, que le c&#339;ur de l'homme n'a jamais port&#233;e plus loin, et l'immense richesse de ces r&#233;gions. L'humilit&#233; et la patience des habitants (qui ont simplifi&#233; et facilit&#233; leur approche de ces terres) ont beaucoup favoris&#233; le commerce : qu'ils ont tellement m&#233;pris&#233;, qu'ils les ont trait&#233;s (je parle de choses dont j'&#233;tais t&#233;moin oculaire, sans la moindre erreur) non pas comme des b&#234;tes, ce que je souhaiterais volontiers, mais comme les crottes les plus abjectes et les ordures de la Terre ; et ils &#233;taient si tortur&#233;s et violent&#233;s dans leur vie et dans leur &#226;me, que le nombre susmentionn&#233; de personnes mourut sans comprendre la vraie foi ou les sacrements. Et cela aussi est aussi vrai que le r&#233;cit pr&#233;c&#233;dant (que m&#234;me les tyrans et les meurtriers cruels ne peuvent nier sans le stigmate d'un mensonge) que les Espagnols n'ont jamais &#233;t&#233; bless&#233;s par les Indiens, mais qu'ils les ont plut&#244;t v&#233;n&#233;r&#233;s comme des personnes descendant du ciel jusqu'&#224; ce qu'ils soient contraints de prendre les armes, provoqu&#233;s par des blessures r&#233;p&#233;t&#233;es, des tourments violents et des boucheries injustifi&#233;es. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Short_Account_of_the_Destruction_of_the_Indies&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Source en anglais&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86267931/f5.image.r=las%20casas%20bartolom%C3%A9&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Tyrannies et cruaut&#233;s des Espagnols perp&#233;tr&#233;es aux Indes Occidentales qu'on dit Nouveau Monde &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=hf1FDspWyVMC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=bartolom%C3%A9+las+casas&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwi0z9q6osDhAhUKD2MBHe6AASAQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&amp;q=bartolom%C3%A9%20las%20casas&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; La destruction des Indes &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=Sd-eCgAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwi1np3yosDhAhUL8uAKHRDCAkgQ6AEIODAD#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Histoire des Indes &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=ph8QAAAAYAAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwi1np3yosDhAhUL8uAKHRDCAkgQ6AEISTAG#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#338;uvres de Las Casas, tome 1&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=2_Q_AAAAcAAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwi1np3yosDhAhUL8uAKHRDCAkgQ6AEIQzAF#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#338;uvres de Las Casas, tome 2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=irbD8I5bok8C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiTiPfEo8DhAhUOmhQKHRcRCfk4ChDoAQgnMAA#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Histoire des Indes Occidentales &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=a5YGRPW0mdkC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiTiPfEo8DhAhUOmhQKHRcRCfk4ChDoAQgtMAE#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Histoire de la d&#233;couverte des Indes Occidentales par les Espagnols &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=oA1iAAAAcAAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwip7P6TpMDhAhX6AWMBHdhQCXY4HhDoAQhMMAU#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Le miroir de la tyrannie espagnole perp&#233;tr&#233;e sous Philippe II, roi d'Espagne &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=dDkjFppVrrEC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=inauthor:%22Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas%22&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwip7P6TpMDhAhX6AWMBHdhQCXY4HhDoAQheMAg#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire &#171; Histoire admirable des horribles violences, cruaut&#233;s et tyrannies exerc&#233;es par les Espagnols aux Indes occidentales &#187;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://books.google.fr/books?id=_UjqFORs15sC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=bartolom%C3%A9+las+casas&amp;hl=fr&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwi0z9q6osDhAhUKD2MBHe6AASAQ6AEILTAB#v=onepage&amp;q=bartolom%C3%A9%20las%20casas&amp;f=false&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire la controverse de Valladolid entre Las Casas et Sep&#249;lveda&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Howard Zinn, &#171; Une histoire populaire des &#201;tats-Unis de 1492 &#224; nos jours &#187; :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Nous disposons du t&#233;moignage de Bartolom&#233; de Las Casas qui, jeune pr&#234;tre, participa &#224; la conqu&#234;te de Cuba. Il poss&#233;da lui-m&#234;me quelque temps une plantation sur laquelle il faisait travailler des esclaves indiens, mais il l'abandonna par la suite pour se faire l'un des plus ardents critiques de la cruaut&#233; espagnole. Las Casas, qui avait retranscrit le journal de Colomb, commen&#231;a vers l'&#226;ge de cinquante ans une monumentale Histoire g&#233;n&#233;rale des Indes, dans laquelle il d&#233;crit les Indiens. Particuli&#232;rement agiles, dit-il, ils pouvaient &#233;galement nager &#8212; les femmes en particulier &#8212; sur de longues distances. S'ils n'&#233;taient pas exactement pacifiques &#8212; les tribus se combattaient, en effet, de temps en temps &#8212; les pertes humaines restaient peu importantes. En outre, ils ne se battaient que pour des motifs personnels et non sur ordre de leurs chefs ou de leurs rois.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La mani&#232;re dont les femmes indiennes &#233;taient trait&#233;es ne pouvait que surprendre les Espagnols. Las Casas rend ainsi compte des rapports entre les sexes : &#171; Les lois du mariage sont inexistantes : les hommes aussi bien que les femmes choisissent et quittent librement leurs compagnons ou compagnes sans ranc&#339;ur, sans jalousie et sans col&#232;re. Ils se reproduisent en abondance. Les femmes enceintes travaillent jusqu'&#224; la derni&#232;re minute et mettent leurs enfants au monde presque sans douleurs. D&#232;s le lendemain, elles se baignent dans la rivi&#232;re et en ressortent aussi propres et bien portantes qu'avant l'accouchement. Si elles se lassent de leurs compagnons, elles provoquent elles-m&#234;mes un avortement &#224; l'aide d'herbes aux propri&#233;t&#233;s abortives et dissimulent les parties honteuses de leur anatomie sous des feuilles ou des v&#234;tements de coton. N&#233;anmoins, dans l'ensemble, les Indiens et les Indiennes r&#233;agissent aussi peu &#224; la nudit&#233; des corps que nous r&#233;agissons &#224; la vue des mains ou du visage d'un homme. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Toujours selon Las Casas, les Indiens n'avaient pas de religion, ou du moins pas de temples.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ils vivaient dans &#171; de grands b&#226;timents communs de forme conique, pouvant abriter quelque six cents personnes &#224; la fois [ . . . ] faits de bois fort solide et couverts d'un toit de palmes. [ . . . ] Ils appr&#233;cient les plumes color&#233;es des oiseaux, les perles taill&#233;es dans les ar&#234;tes de poissons et les pierres vertes et blanches dont ils ornent leurs oreilles et leurs l&#232;vres. En revanche, ils n'accordent aucune valeur particuli&#232;re &#224; l'or ou &#224; toute autre chose pr&#233;cieuse. Ils ignorent tout des pratiques commerciales et ne vendent ni n'ach&#232;tent rien. Ils comptent exclusivement sur leur environnement naturel pour subvenir &#224; leurs besoins ; ils sont extr&#234;mement g&#233;n&#233;reux concernant ce qu'ils poss&#232;dent et, par l&#224; m&#234;me, convoitent les biens d'autrui en attendant de lui le m&#234;me degr&#233; de lib&#233;ralit&#233;. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Dans le second volume de son Histoire g&#233;n&#233;rale des Indes, Las Casas (il avait d'abord propos&#233; de remplacer les Indiens par des esclaves noirs, consid&#233;rant qu'ils &#233;taient plus r&#233;sistants et qu'ils survivraient plus facilement, mais revint plus tard sur ce jugement en observant les effets d&#233;sastreux de l'esclavage sur les Noirs) t&#233;moigne du traitement inflig&#233; aux Indiens par les Espagnols. Ce r&#233;cit est unique et m&#233;rite qu'on le cite longuement : &#171; D'innombrables t&#233;moignages [ .. . ] prouvent le temp&#233;rament pacifique et doux des indig&#232;nes. [ &#8230; ] Pourtant, notre activit&#233; n'a consist&#233; qu'&#224; les exasp&#233;rer, les piller, les tuer, les mutiler et les d&#233;truire. Peu surprenant, d&#232;s lors, qu'ils essaient de tuer l'un des n&#244;tres de temps &#224; autre. [ . . . ] L'amiral [Colomb], il est vrai, &#233;tait &#224; ce sujet aussi aveugle que ses successeurs et si anxieux de satisfaire le roi qu'il commit des crimes irr&#233;parables contre les Indiens. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas nous raconte encore comment les Espagnols &#171; devenaient chaque jour plus vaniteux &#187; et, apr&#232;s quelque temps, refusaient m&#234;me de marcher sur la moindre distance. Lorsqu'ils &#171; &#233;taient press&#233;s, ils se d&#233;pla&#231;aient &#224; dos d'Indien &#187; ou bien ils se faisaient transporter dans des hamacs par des Indiens qui devaient courir en se relayant. &#171; Dans ce cas, ils se faisaient aussi accompagner d'Indiens portant de grandes feuilles de palmier pour les prot&#233;ger du soleil et pour les &#233;venter. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La ma&#238;trise totale engendrant la plus totale cruaut&#233;, les Espagnols &#171; ne se g&#234;naient pas pour passer des dizaines ou des vingtaines d'Indiens par le fil de l'&#233;p&#233;e ou pour tester le tranchant de leurs lames sur eux. &#187; Las Casas raconte aussi comment &#171; deux de ces soi-disant chr&#233;tiens, ayant rencontr&#233; deux jeunes Indiens avec des perroquets, s'empar&#232;rent des perroquets et par pur caprice d&#233;capit&#232;rent les deux gar&#231;ons &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les tentatives de r&#233;action de la part des Indiens &#233;chou&#232;rent toutes. Enfin, continue Las Casas, &#171; ils suaient sang et eau dans les mines ou autres travaux forc&#233;s, dans un silence d&#233;sesp&#233;r&#233;, n'ayant nulle &#226;me au monde vers qui se tourner pour obtenir de l'aide &#187;. Il d&#233;crit &#233;galement ce travail dans les mines : &#171; Les montagnes sont fouill&#233;es, de la base au sommet et du sommet &#224; la base, un millier de fois. Ils piochent, cassent les rochers, d&#233;placent les pierres et transportent les gravats sur leur dos pour les laver dans les rivi&#232;res. Ceux qui lavent l'or demeurent dans l'eau en permanence et leur dos perp&#233;tuellement courb&#233; ach&#232;ve de les briser. En outre, lorsque l'eau envahit les galeries, la t&#226;che la plus harassante de toutes consiste &#224; &#233;coper et &#224; la rejeter &#224; l'ext&#233;rieur &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Apr&#232;s six ou huit mois de travail dans les mines (laps de temps requis pour que chaque &#233;quipe puisse extraire suffisamment d'or pour le faire fondre), un tiers des hommes &#233;taient morts.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Pendant que les hommes &#233;taient envoy&#233;s au loin dans les mines, les femmes restaient &#224; travailler le sol, confront&#233;es &#224; l'&#233;pouvantable t&#226;che de piocher la terre pour pr&#233;parer de nouveaux terrains destin&#233;s &#224; la culture du manioc.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Les maris et les femmes ne se retrouvaient que tous les huit ou dix mois et &#233;taient alors si harass&#233;s et d&#233;prim&#233;s [ &#8230; ] qu'ils cess&#232;rent de procr&#233;er. Quant aux nouveaux-n&#233;s, ils mouraient tr&#232;s rapidement car leurs m&#232;res, affam&#233;es et accabl&#233;es de travail, n'avaient plus de lait pour les nourrir. C'est ainsi que lorsque j'&#233;tais &#224; Cuba sept mille enfants moururent en trois mois seulement. Certaines m&#232;res, au d&#233;sespoir, noyaient m&#234;me leurs b&#233;b&#233;s. [ &#8230; ] En bref, les maris mouraient dans les mines, les femmes mouraient au travail et les enfants mouraient faute de lait maternel. [ &#8230; ] Rapidement, cette terre qui avait &#233;t&#233; si belle, si prometteuse et si fertile [ . . . ] se trouva d&#233;peupl&#233;e. [ &#8230; ] J'ai vu de mes yeux tous ces actes si contraires &#224; la nature humaine et j'en tremble au moment que j'&#233;cris. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Las Casas nous dit encore qu'&#224; son arriv&#233;e &#224; Hispaniola, en 1508, &#171; soixante mille personnes habitaient cette &#238;le, Indiens compris. Trois millions d'individus ont donc &#233;t&#233; victimes de la guerre, de l'esclavage et du travail dans les mines, entre 1494 et 1508. Qui, parmi les g&#233;n&#233;rations futures, pourra croire pareille chose ? Moi-m&#234;me, qui &#233;cris ceci en en ayant &#233;t&#233; le t&#233;moin oculaire, j'en suis presque incapable &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;C'est ainsi qu'a commenc&#233;, il y a cinq cents ans, l'histoire de l'invasion europ&#233;enne des territoires indiens aux Am&#233;riques. Au commencement, donc, &#233;taient la conqu&#234;te, l'esclavage et la mort, selon Las Casas &#8212; et cela m&#234;me si certaines donn&#233;es sont un peu exag&#233;r&#233;es : y avait-il effectivement trois millions d'Indiens, comme il le pr&#233;tend, ou moins d'un million, selon certains historiens, ou huit millions, selon certains autres ? Pourtant, &#224; en croire les manuels d'histoire fournis aux &#233;l&#232;ves am&#233;ricains, tout commence par une &#233;pop&#233;e h&#233;ro&#239;que &#8212; nulle mention des bains de sang &#8212; et nous c&#233;l&#233;brons aujourd'hui encore le Columbus Day. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://issuu.com/scduag/docs/bbx17025-2&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Histoire de la conqu&#234;te du Mexique&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article4124&#034;&gt;Chronologie de la r&#233;volte des Indiens des Am&#233;riques contre les colonisateurs&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tenochtitlan, capitale des Mexica (Azt&#232;ques)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div class='spip_document_12766 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_center spip_document_center'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.matierevolution.org/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH434/tenochtitlan-6f661.jpg?1779675524' width='500' height='434' alt='' /&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;&#171; La conqu&#234;te du Mexique &#187;, Hugh Thomas :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; L'invasion espagnole du Mexique fut un prolongement des conqu&#234;tes ayant commenc&#233; en 1492, avec le premier voyage de Colomb, Hern&#224;n Cort&#233;s, le commandant espagnol, avait v&#233;cu &#224; Hispaniola comme &#224; Cuba. Tous les membres de son exp&#233;dition avaient s&#233;journ&#233; quelque temps dans ces &#238;les. un petit nombre s'&#233;tait rendu ailleurs sur le continent, pr&#232;s de Panama, avant d'entrer dans ce qu'on appelle aujourd'hui le Mexique.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En 1519, les peuples du Mexique &#233;taient r&#233;gis par une monarchie plus complexe que ne l'&#233;taient les principules des Cara&#239;bes avant Colomb. Les Azt&#232;ques &#8211; ou Mexicas comme on pr&#233;f&#232;rera les appeler &#8211; avaient maintes qualit&#233;s. Ils &#233;taient bien organis&#233;s. L'ancien Mexique ressemblait beaucoup &#224; un Etat. Un conquistador jugea leurs demeures sup&#233;rieures &#224; celles des Espagnols. Les Mexica des classes sup&#233;rieures portaient des habits brod&#233;s. Leurs orf&#232;vres fabriquaient des joyaux qui stup&#233;fi&#232;rent les Europ&#233;ens. Majoritairement citadins, ils dispensaient une instruction quasiment g&#233;n&#233;rale, &#224; tout le moins aux gar&#231;onnets n'&#233;tant pas issus ni des serfs, ni des esclaves.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Au XVIe si&#232;cle, les Espagnols continuaient d'utiliser la num&#233;ration romaine, y compris ses fractions, au lieu du syst&#232;me d&#233;cimal plus pratique introduit par les Arabes, gr&#226;ce aux Hindous, bien des ann&#233;es plus t&#244;t. Les Mexica, eux, se servaient d'une m&#233;thode vig&#233;simale, ainsi que du z&#233;ro, qui permettaient des calculs beaucoup plus pr&#233;cis qu'on ne les pratiquait en Europe.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;D&#232;s avant la d&#233;couverte du Mexique, on s'interrogeait sur l'&#233;thique de la mission imp&#233;rialiste espagnole : on devait cet examen de conscience &#224; plusieurs religieux dominicains, t&#233;moins des d&#233;buts aux Cara&#239;bes&#8230; Il n'est aucun autre empire europ&#233;en, qu'il s'agisse de Rome, de la France ou de l'Angleterre, qui ait ainsi mis en cause les buts de son expansion. La controverse se poursuivit.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En 1770, le marquis de Moncada envoyait &#224; un ami fran&#231;ais un bel ouvrage, ancien et illustr&#233;, probablement venu de Puebla, aujourd'hui connu sous le nom de &#171; Mappe Quinatzin &#187;. Il &#233;crivait :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Vous jugerez par vous-m&#234;mes s'ils (les Mexica) &#233;taient des barbares &#224; l'&#233;poque o&#249; leur pays, leurs biens et leurs mines leur furent d&#233;rob&#233;s ; ou si c'est nous qui le f&#251;mes. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La morale des Mexica nous est sugg&#233;r&#233;e par un passage du &#171; Codex florentin &#187; : il y est montr&#233; qu'au moins en th&#233;orie ils admiraient bien des choses que les gentilhommes chr&#233;tiens &#233;taient cens&#233;s admirer en Europe : &#171; l'&#233;conomie, la compassion, la sinc&#233;rit&#233;, le soin, l'ordre, l'&#233;nergie, l'attention, l'ardeur, l'ob&#233;issance, l'humilit&#233;, la gr&#226;ce, la discr&#233;tion, une bonne m&#233;moire, la modestie, le courage et la r&#233;solution &#187; ; tandis qu'ils m&#233;prisaient &#171; la paresse, la n&#233;gligence, le manque de compassion, le manque de fiabilit&#233;, de sinc&#233;rit&#233;, la morosit&#233;, la b&#234;tise, la malhonn&#234;tet&#233;, la tromperie, le pillage &#187;, et m&#234;me &#171; l'agitation, l'irrespect et la tra&#238;trise &#187;&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les Mexica succ&#233;daient &#224; divers peuples belliqueux ayant r&#233;gn&#233; sur la Vall&#233;e du Mexique. Ils avaient instaur&#233; leur propre empire par les armes. Leurs adversaires espganols, dans le lutte contre l'ancien Mexique, re&#231;urent l'appoint d&#233;cisif d'alli&#233;s indiens qui d&#233;testaient les Mexica. Il va de soi que les Espagnols &#233;taient des conqu&#233;rants, comme l'avaient &#233;t&#233; nagu&#232;re les Vikings, les Goths, les Romains (qu'ils admiraient), les Arabes, les Mac&#233;doniens ou les Perses, pour ne mentionner qu'un petit nombre de leurs pr&#233;d&#233;cesseurs ; ou les Anglais, les Hollandais, les Fran&#231;ais, les Allemands ou les Russes, pour citer quelques-uns de ceux qui les suivirent&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les Espagnols nourrissaient une confiance illimit&#233;e dans leurs propres qualit&#233;s, dans la sagesse politique de leur mission imp&#233;riale, enfin dans la sup&#233;riorit&#233; spirituelle de l'Eglise catholique :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Quelle grande bonne fortune pour les Indiens, cette arriv&#233;e des Espagnols, puisqu'ils sont pass&#233;s de ce malheur &#224; leur pr&#233;sent &#233;tat de b&#233;n&#233;diction. &#187; s'&#233;crierait l'historien Cervant&#232;s de Salazar en 1554.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; &#212; l'&#233;trange bestialit&#233; de ces gens ; &#224; bien des &#233;gards, ils ont une bonne discipline, un bon gouvernement, une bonne compr&#233;hension, des aptitudes et du savoir-vivre, mais &#224; d'autres une bestialit&#233; et une c&#233;cit&#233; monstrueuses. &#187; &#233;crivait le religieux dominicain Dur&#224;n, vers la fin du si&#232;cle&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Le mode de vie (au Mexique) est presque le m&#234;me qu'en Espagne, et respire tout autant l'ordre et l'harmonie. &#187; &#233;crivait Hernan Cort&#233;s &#224; Charles Quint en 1521.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'admirable situation de la capitale mexicaine, Tenochtitlan, n'aurait gu&#232;re pu &#234;tre meilleure. La ville se dressait &#224; plus de 2300 m&#232;tres d'altitude, sur une &#238;le lacustre peu &#233;loign&#233;e du littoral occidental (320 kilom&#232;tres) ou oriental (240 kilom&#232;tres). Le lac se trouvait au centre d'une vaste vall&#233;e born&#233;e de magnifiques montagnes dont deux &#233;taient des volcans. Tous deux &#233;taient couverts de neiges &#233;ternelles&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Comme &#224; Venise, &#224; laquelle on la comparerait souvent, plusieurs g&#233;n&#233;rations avaient &#339;uvr&#233; &#224; construire Tenochtitlan. La minuscule &#238;le naturelle en formant le centre avait &#233;t&#233; agrandie, au moyen de pieux, de boue et de rochers, jusqu'&#224; recouvrir un millier d'hectares. Tenochtitlan arborait fi&#232;rement une trentaine de beaux palais, construits dans une pierre volcanique rouge&#226;tre et poreuse. Les maisons ordinaires, de plain-pied, o&#249; vivaient la plupart des 250.000 habitants, &#233;taient en pis&#233; ordinairement peint en blanc. Beaucoup &#233;taient juch&#233;es sur des plates-formes pour pr&#233;venir les inondations. Le lac &#233;tait parcouru de toutes sortes d'embarcations apportant tributs et marchandises. De petites villes bien construites, vassales de la grande cit&#233;, parsemaient les rives du lac.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Au centre de Tenochtitlan, on trouvait une enceinte sacr&#233;e renfermant plusieurs b&#226;tisses saintes et des pyramides courron&#233;es de temples. Rues et canaux quittaient l'enceinte aux quatre points cardinaux. Non loin se dressait le palais de l'empereur. On d&#233;couvrait plusieurs petites pyramides dans la ville, soutenant chacune un temple d&#233;di&#233; aux dff&#233;rents dieux : ces pyramides, &#233;difices religieux typiques de la r&#233;gion, &#233;taient un hommage humain &#224; la splendeur des volcans environnants.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tenochtitlan semblait inexpugnable. La ville n'avait jamais &#233;t&#233; attaqu&#233;e. Les Mexicains n'avaient qu'&#224; lever les Ponts-levis des trois chauss&#233;es reliant la capitale &#224; la terre ferme pour &#233;chapper &#224; tout ennemi imaginable.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Un po&#232;me s'interrogeait :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Qui pourrait conqu&#233;rir Tenochtitlan ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Qui pourrait &#233;branler la fondation du Ciel&#8230; ? &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Miguel Leon-Portilla, &#171; Precombian Litteratures of Mexico &#187;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La s&#233;curit&#233; de la ville avait &#233;t&#233; renforc&#233;e pendant quatre-vingt-dix ans par une alliance avec deux autres cit&#233;s situ&#233;es respectivement sur les rives ouest et est du lac, Tacuba et Texcoco. Toutes deux &#233;taient des satellites de Tenochtitlan, bien que Texcoco, capitale culturelle, f&#251;t remarquable par elle-m&#234;me : on y parlait une version &#233;l&#233;gante de la langue de la Vall&#233;e, le nahuatl&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Ces alli&#233;s concouraient au d&#233;veloppement d'une &#233;conomie lacustre mutuellement profitable &#224; une cinquantaine de cit&#233;s-Etats de taille r&#233;duite, dont la plupart &#233;taient en vue les unes des autres et dont aucune ne vivait en autarcie&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les empereurs du Mexique ne dominaient pas seulement la Vall&#233;e du Mexique. Au-del&#224; des volcans, ils avaient &#233;tabli leur autorit&#233; vers l'orient, jusqu'au golfe du Mexique. Leur mainmise s'&#233;tendait loin sur la c&#244;te pacifique au sud, jusqu'&#224; Xoconocho, la meilleure source d'approvisionnement en plumes vertes, si appr&#233;ci&#233;es, de l'oiseau quetzal. A l'est, ils avaient conduit des conqu&#234;tes &#233;loign&#233;es dans des for&#234;ts pluviales &#224; un mois de marche. Tenochtitlan contr&#244;lait ainsi trois zones distinctes : les tropiques, pr&#232;s des oc&#233;ans ; une zone temp&#233;r&#233;e, au-del&#224; des volcans ; et la proche r&#233;gion montagneuse. D'o&#249; la vari&#233;t&#233; des produits offerts &#224; la vente dans la capitale imp&#233;riale.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le c&#339;ur de l'empire, la Vall&#233;e du Mexique, faisait 120 kilom&#232;tres du nord au sud, 65 kilom&#232;tres d'est en ouest, soit quelques 7800 kilom&#232;tres carr&#233;s, mais l'emire lui-m&#234;me s'&#233;tendait sur 325.000 kilom&#232;tres carr&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La capitale aurait d&#251; &#234;tre s&#251;re d'elle. Il n'existait pas de plus grande cit&#233;, plus puissante ou plus riche au sein du monde dont le peuple de la Vall&#233;e avait connaissance. Elle attirait des milliers d'immigr&#233;s dont certains savaient que leur savoir-faire y serait appr&#233;ci&#233; : tels les lapidaires de Xochimilco. La m&#234;me famille r&#233;gnait sur la ville depuis pr&#232;s d'un si&#232;cle. Une &#171; mosa&#239;que &#187; de pr&#232;s de 400 villes au total, chacune r&#233;gie par son propre roi, envoyait &#224; l'empereur des tributs r&#233;guliers, constitu&#233;s de ma&#239;s (l'aliment de base du pays) et d haricots, des manteaux de coton et d'autres v&#234;tements, ainsi que divers types de costumes de guerre (les tuniques de guerre souvent emplum&#233;es, arrivaient de trente des trente-huit provinces). Les tributs comprenaient aussi des mati&#232;res premi&#232;res et des marchandises semi-finies (de l'or battu mais pas travaill&#233;), ainsi que des biens manufactur&#233;s (dont les labrets d'ambre et de cristal, et des colliers de perles de jade ou de turquoise).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le pouvoir des Mexica en l'an 1518, ou comme ils l'appelaient, l'ann&#233;e 13-Lapin, semblait reposer sur de solides fondations. Les &#233;changes commerciaux &#233;taient bien r&#233;gl&#233;s. F&#232;ves de cacao, manteaux, parfois cano&#235;s, haches de cuivre et plumes remplies de poussi&#232;re d'or servaient de monnaie d'&#233;change&#8230; Mais on payait ordinairement les services en services.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;On trouvait des march&#233;s dans tous les quartiers : l'un d'eux, celui de la ville de Tlateloloco, d&#233;sormais vaste faubourg de Tenochtitlan, &#233;tait le plus important march&#233; des Am&#233;riques, le bazar de toute la r&#233;gion. On y &#233;changeait m&#234;me des marchandises venues du lointain Guatemala. Pendant ce temps, presque tout le monde commer&#231;ait &#224; petite &#233;chelle dans l'ancien Mexique, car vendre le produit de la maisonn&#233;e &#233;tait la principale activit&#233; de la famille&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'empereur du Mexique repr&#233;sentait l'empire et g&#233;rait ses relations ext&#233;rieures. Les affaires int&#233;rieures &#233;taient en dernier ressort d&#233;cid&#233;es par un empereur adjoint, un cousin, le &#171; cihuacoatl &#187;, titre qu'il partageait avec celui d'une grande d&#233;esse, et dont la traduction litt&#233;rale &#233;tait &#171; femme-serpent &#187;, l'associait au versant f&#233;minin de la divinit&#233;&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; (Remarque de M et R : ceci &#233;tait sans doute un reste d'une &#233;poque o&#249; les femmes gouvernaient la vie civile et les hommes la guerre et o&#249; la d&#233;esse avait autant de poids sinon plus que les dieux)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La vie, &#224; Tenochtitlan, &#233;tait stable. Elle &#233;tait g&#233;r&#233;e, en pratique, par un r&#233;seau &#233;troit tenant du clan, de la guilde et du district, le &#171; calpulli &#187;&#8230; entit&#233; autonome qui d&#233;tenait des terres n'apaprtenant pas en propre &#224; ses membres, mais qu'ils exploitaient. Il s'agissait sans doute d'une association de familles apparent&#233;es au sens large. Dans plusieurs calputin (au pluriel), les familles exer&#231;aient la m&#234;me profession. Ainsi, les plumassiers r&#233;sidaient-ils surtout &#224; Amantlan, quartier qui avait probablement &#233;t&#233; un village ind&#233;pendant&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La plus puissante des guildes se trouvait dans le faubourg nomm&#233; Cuepan, o&#249; r&#233;sidaient les marchands dits &#171; &#224; longue distance &#187;, les &#171; pochteca &#187;. Ils avaient mauvaise r&#233;putation chez les Mexica : ils semblaient &#234;tre &#171; les cupides, les repus, les envieux, les avares qui aspiraient &#224; la richesse &#187;. Mais on les louait officiellement &#171; en hommes qui, lorsqu'ils guidaient les caravanes de porteurs, agrandissaient l'Etat mexicain &#187;. Conscients qu'on les jalousait, ils cultivaient le myst&#232;re. Ils servaient d'espions aux Mexica ; ils informaient l'empereur des forces, des faiblesses et des richesses des endroits qu'ils visitaient durant leurs voyages.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'organisation de ces n&#233;gociants, qui importaient &#224; Tenochtitlan les mati&#232;res premi&#232;res, ainsi que les marchandises de luxe venues de la r&#233;gion temp&#233;r&#233;e comme des tropiques, &#233;tait chronologiquement ant&#233;rieure &#224; celle de l'empire&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Remarque de M et R : comment ne pas souligner de trois traits rouges cette note de l'auteur. La soci&#233;t&#233; commerciale et artisanale a certainement pr&#233;exist&#233; aux royaut&#233;s et &#224; l'empire qui, lui, repose sur les nobles et les guerriers, tr&#232;s hostiles aux pochteca, grands n&#233;gociants ayant un pouvoir important, une religion et des droits sociaux et politiques ind&#233;pendants, notamment une gestion civile et une justice ainsi qu'un acc&#232;s direct &#224; l'empereur, charg&#233;s du grand commerce et des produits rares et de luxe, ainsi que de la connaissance du monde ext&#233;rieur et des ambassades &#233;trang&#232;res !!!! L'empire ne vit qu'en sangsue de l'activit&#233; &#233;conomique et commerciale et ne lui sert qu'&#224; assurer une certaine s&#233;curit&#233; sur un territoire fixe et une clinet&#232;le pour les produits de luxe. L'hostilit&#233; entre ces deux classes sociales, seigneurs de guerre et grande bourgeoisie, n'&#233;tait pas seulement permanente et ancienne, elle avait consid&#233;rablement augment&#233; vues les pr&#233;tentions croissantes de cet empire surpuissant &#224; r&#233;duire la part de la grande bourgeoisie, pr&#233;tention particuli&#232;rement incarn&#233;e par Montezuma II et ses r&#233;formes radicales des droits des diverses classes sociales.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'essentiel de la t&#226;che des pochteca consistait &#224; &#233;changer des biens manufactur&#233;s contre des mati&#232;res premi&#232;res : un manteau brod&#233; contre du jade ; ou un bijou d'or contre de l'&#233;caille (utilis&#233;e pour les cuillers destin&#233;es au chocolat). Ces grands marchands vivaient discr&#233;tement, s'habillaient mal et portaient les cheveux longs jusqu'&#224; la taille. Pourtant, ils poss&#233;daient de nombreux biens. L'empereur les appelait ses &#171; oncles &#187; ; leurs filles &#233;taient parfois les coccubines des monarques.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Remarque de M et R : ces &#171; oncles &#187; de l'empereur avaient beaucoup perdu de poids social et politique r&#233;cemment et particuli&#232;rement avec l'av&#232;nement de Montezuma 1er, qui cultivait davantage les nobles et les rois que les pochteca, oublieux que la grande fortune de l'empire reposait sur une activit&#233; &#233;conomique, notamment la transformation industrielle des produits premiers et leur &#233;change avec des soci&#233;t&#233;s alentours plus archa&#239;ques donnant en &#233;change une grande quantit&#233; de produits de base et il tentait de croire qu'il suffisait d&#233;sormais de conqu&#233;rir de nouveaux territoires et de leur imposer le paiement du tribut pour que la soci&#233;t&#233; mexica s'enrichisse sans cesse. En m&#234;me temps, la haine des nobles seigneurs de la guerre envers la fortune cach&#233;e des pochteca grandissait sans cesse. Elle allait devenir ouverte avec la guerre entre Tlatelolco, la ville des commer&#231;ants, et Tenochtilan, la capitale imp&#233;riale, capitale des seigneurs de guerre. Tout cela signifie que l'empire reposait bel et bien sur une lutte de classes, avec une classe noble, une classe bourgeoise et une classe exploit&#233;e.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Hugh Thomas poursuit :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; &#171; Quelle que soit l'importance de ces n&#233;gociants, c'&#233;taient les soldats qui avaient assur&#233; au Mexica la supr&#233;matie dans la Vall&#233;e et au-del&#224;. Ces guerriers &#233;taient tout &#224; la fois bien organis&#233;s et nombreux : on disait que les rois avaient attendu que leur population f&#251;t assez importante pour d&#233;fier les T&#233;pan&#232;ques, dont ils &#233;taient nagu&#232;re sujets, en 1428. Les gar&#231;onnets, au Mexique, &#233;taient pr&#233;par&#233;s &#224; la guerre d&#232;s la naissance, tels des Spartiates ou des Prussiens&#8230; L'appartenance aux ordres chevaleresques, les &#171; jaguars &#187; et les &#171; aigles &#187; &#233;tait une distinction supreme obtenue par les braves&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'&#233;poque mexicaine de conqu&#234;te ininterrompue avait commenc&#233; vers 1430. Ses instigateurs &#233;taient le premier empereur Itzcoatl, et son &#233;trange neveu-g&#233;n&#233;ral, Tlacaelel, qui &#233;tait aussi &#171; cihuacoatl &#187;&#8230;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Remarque de M et R : bien des commentateurs pr&#233;sentent souvent la civilisation mexicaine comme un produit de l'imp&#233;rialisme et ne d&#233;crivent alors que la toute derni&#232;re phase de cette soci&#233;t&#233;, non ses bases fondamentales ni les facteurs de sa r&#233;ussite pr&#233;c&#233;dente et de son &#233;chec ensuite, la perte de poids de son commerce et la croissance du poids &#233;conomique et social de l'imp&#233;rialisme guerrier, purement pr&#233;dateur de l'activit&#233; &#233;conomique. Notamment, le foss&#233; entre l'accroissement d&#233;mographique et la r&#233;duction de l'activit&#233; &#233;conomique productive int&#233;rieure propre s'accroissait. Comme ailleurs dans le monde, l'Etat est venu ponctionner les richesses produites par une soci&#233;t&#233; d&#233;j&#224; prosp&#232;re sans lui depuis longtemps, m&#234;me si elle a pr&#233;tendu lui aussurer la s&#233;curit&#233; et la prosp&#233;rit&#233; durables. Mais l'Etat lui-m&#234;me est devenu une source de revenus de pillage et a commenc&#233; &#224; nuire &#224; l'activit&#233; &#233;conomique interne et &#224; combattre ses fondateurs. Le caract&#232;re de sansgsue de la classe noble et guerri&#232;re a commenc&#233; &#224; saper les bases de la soci&#233;t&#233; mexica.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Hugh Thomas :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Une grave difficult&#233; de l'empire &#233;tait la place croissante des tributs dans l'&#233;conomie de la cit&#233;. Le dernier si&#232;cle avait vu une augmentation consid&#233;rable de la population. Le ma&#239;s local se faisait de plus en plus rare. En m&#234;me temps, une proportion substantielle de la population de Tenochtitlan se consacrait aux services et &#224; l'artisanat : &#224; fabriquer des sandales, vendre du combustible, tisser des nattes, transporter des objets ou confectionner des c&#233;ramiques&#8230; C'est pourquoi les apports suppl&#233;mentaires procur&#233;s par le tribut apparaissaient de plus en plus n&#233;cessaires.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Mais y avait plus grave. Les classes sup&#233;rieures, g&#226;t&#233;es par le luxe, jugeaient indispensables de disposer de fruits tropicaux et de cacao. Les nobles ne pouvaient se passer de leurs 15.000 jarres de miel annuelles, pour ne rien dire des fournitures r&#233;guli&#232;res de plus de 200.000 manteaux de coton de tailles diff&#233;rentes. L'empereur lui aussi avait besoin d'une partie de ces objets, dans une soci&#233;t&#233; ignorant l'argent et fonctionnant par troc, pour payer les fonctionnaires de leurs services. Au d&#233;but, ces paiements &#233;taient faits en terrains. Mais ceux-ci venaient &#224; manquer. Les f&#234;tes, elles aussi, toujours plus grandioses, r&#233;clamaient plus de luxe, pour les pr&#233;sents des dieux et pour les ornements de l'assistance&#8230; M&#234;me pour conduire les guerres, il fallait importer des tributs de tuniques de guerre et d'armes&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bien que les villes importantes dussent supporter un intendant mexicain (calpixqui), bien qu'il y e&#251;t ici ou l&#224; des garnisons, le syst&#232;me des tributs &#233;vitait les d&#233;penses &#233;crasantes d'un empire centralis&#233;. Pourvu que la ville d&#233;sign&#233;e envoy&#226;t les produits appropri&#233;s au moment appropri&#233;, elle avait toute latitude pour s'administrer. Pourtant, bien des territoires asujettis jugeaient ces exigences pesantes. Plusieurs cit&#233;s &#233;taient impatientes et rancuni&#232;res. Quelques-unes &#233;taient pr&#234;tes &#224; se rebeller.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Autre source d'inqui&#233;tude possible, une stratification croissante de la soci&#233;t&#233; mexicaine. Au d&#233;but, la plupart des chefs de famille semblent avoir &#233;t&#233; concern&#233;s par l'&#233;lection d'un monarque. D&#233;sormais, le coll&#232;ge &#233;lectoral ne comprenait que les plus grands seigneurs&#8230; Ces dirigeants devaient venir incognito, car &#171; ils ne souhaitaient pas que le commun soup&#231;onne les alliances des rois et des dirigeants, et que les accords et les amiti&#233;s qu'ils nouaient se faisaient aux d&#233;pens de la vie de l'homme ordinaire &#187;. (Dur&#224;n, volume 2, p. 339) (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le XVe si&#232;cle avait vu cr&#233;er d&#233;lib&#233;r&#233;ment une classe de nobles, les &#171; pipitlin &#187;, dont la plupart descendaient du roi Acampichtli. Plusieurs rois ult&#233;rieurs avaient engendr&#233; une nombreuse descendance gr&#226;ce &#224; plusieurs &#233;pouses. Sans doute, les chroniqueurs exag&#233;raient-ils en d&#233;clarant que Nezahualpilli, roi de Texcoco, mort en 1515, avait laiss&#233; cent quarante-quatre enfants&#8230; La puissance de ces nobles &#224; demi royaux avait grandi du fait de la distribution de terres conquises ; on leur avait aussi donn&#233; les hommes qui les mettaient en valeur, ce qui permettait &#224; leur fid&#233;lit&#233; de contourner les clans traditionnels de Tenochtitlan, les &#171; calpultin &#187;. Peut-&#234;tre se raidissaient-ils au contact des peuples conquis : en mettant &#224; prix la t&#234;te de Nezahualcoyotl, de Texcoco, alors en fuite, le roi Maxtla d'Azcapotzalco proposa des terres &#224; quiconque le capturerait, &#171; m&#234;me s'il &#233;tait un pl&#233;b&#233;ien &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'empereur de la d&#233;cennie 1460, Montezuma 1er, renfor&#231;a la stratification sociale en publiant une s&#233;rie de r&#232;gles de conduite, des &#171; &#233;tincelles de feu divin &#187;, selon son &#233;trange formule, pour obtenir que &#171; tous vivraient conform&#233;ment &#224; leur statut &#187;. Ces r&#232;gles instaur&#232;rent des fronti&#232;res entre monarques et seigneurs, seigneurs et hauts fonctionnaires, hauts et petits fonctionnaires, petits fonctionnaires et peuple ordinaire. On distinguait entre une classe sup&#233;rieure de puissants seigneurs et une classe inf&#233;rieure de moindres seigneurs. On accentua les diff&#233;rences de costume et de protocole.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les nobles portaient d&#233;sormais des manteaux et des pagnes de coton brod&#233;, des sandales dor&#233;es, des boucles d'oreilles et des labrets. Les gens du commun ne pouvaient porter de coton et devaient se contenter d'habits faits en fibres d'agave. Leurs manteaux s'arr&#234;taient au genou. Ils ne pouvaient porter de sandales en pr&#233;sence de sup&#233;rieurs. Seuls les nobles pouvaient construire des maisons ayant deux niveaux : eux seuls pouvaient boire du chocolat ; les familles ordinaires devaient utiliser de la vaisselle de terre cuite, ni peinte, ni verniss&#233;e&#8230;. En outre, toute famille ne descendant pas directement des Tolt&#232;ques (via Acampichtli) ne pouvait &#234;tre incorpor&#233;e dans la classe sup&#233;rieure. La mobilit&#233;, de quelque sorte qu'elle soit, &#233;tait condamn&#233;e : &#171; L&#224; o&#249; on v&#233;cu le p&#232;re d'un homme et ses anc&#234;tres, l&#224; il doit vivre et mourir. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'empereur Montezuma II renfor&#231;a encore ces discriminations. Tous les fonctionnaires, et m&#234;me tous les pr&#234;tres, devraient d&#233;sormais sortir de la plus haute classe &#8211; en pratique, de la famille royale au sens le plus large. Au sein m&#234;me de cette grande famille, les charges tendaient &#224; devenir h&#233;r&#233;ditaires. Tr&#232;s logiquement, Montezuma r&#233;serva les &#233;coles sup&#233;rieures, les &#171; calm&#233;cac &#187;, aux enfants de haute naissance. Pr&#233;c&#233;demment, les gar&#231;ons prometteurs d'humble naissance pouvaient aspirer &#224; la pr&#234;trise et donc fr&#233;quenter l'une de ces aust&#232;res institutions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En cons&#233;quence, la structure sociale, en 1518, &#233;tait plus rigide que jamais&#8230; L'isolement de l'empereur, en 1518, &#233;tait plus intense que jamais. Montezuma avait plus de courtisans, de gardes, de jongleurs, d'acrobates, de bouffons et de danseurs que ses pr&#233;d&#233;cesseurs. Apr&#232;s lui venaient, par ordre de pr&#233;s&#233;ance, les principaux conseillers, le premier cercle de la famille royale, les grands administrateurs et la noblesse, la &#171; pipiltin &#187;, dont les vingt et une familles les plus illustres portaient des titres impressionnants. Les nobles avaient de splendides palais o&#249; ils donnaient des f&#234;tes&#8230; Ils vivaient du produit de terres situ&#233;es en dehors de la capitale. Leurs anc&#234;tres avaient construit la grande cit&#233;, ou l'avaient inspir&#233;e. Ils s'en remettaient &#224; sa taille et &#224; ses immenses &#233;difices pour &#233;craser psychologiquement les visiteurs des autres cit&#233;s comme les plus pauvres de leurs compatriotes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La principale distinction au sein de l'ancien Mexique (qui, en cela, ressemblait singuli&#232;rement &#224; l'Europe) opposait les payeurs et les exempt&#233;s du tribut. Cette derni&#232;re cat&#233;gorie incluait la noblesse, les pr&#234;tres et les enfants, les administrateurs mineurs et locaux et les enseignants. Elle incluait &#233;galement les chefs des &#171; capultin &#187; et les roturiers qui, gr&#226;ce &#224; leurs prouesses militaires, avaient commenc&#233; de gravir le m&#226;t graisseux du progr&#232;s social. En faisaient partie les artisans, les marchands et quelques agriculteurs&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;On trouvait &#233;galement des cat&#233;gories diff&#233;rentes parmi les masses s'acquittant de tribut et de taxes : d'abord les laboureurs, &#171; macehualtin &#187;, qui participaient aux &#171; calpultin &#187;&#8230; Les macehualtin constituaient le gros de la soci&#233;t&#233; mexicaine&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Moins diff&#233;renci&#233;e &#233;tait la classe des &#171; mayeques &#187;, comparables aux serfs europ&#233;ens. Ils n'&#233;taient ni esclaves ni libres. C'&#233;taient des hommes, ou des familles, qui travaillaient sur les terres d'autrui, en particulier celles des nobles&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Enfin, dans la classification de ces anciens Mexicains, on trouvait quelques v&#233;ritables esclaves, les &#171; tlatlacotin &#187;, plus favoris&#233;s en un sens que leurs &#233;quivalents europ&#233;ens puisqu'ils pouvaient poss&#233;der des biens, se racheter, &#233;pouser des femmes ou hommes libres. Leurs enfants naissaient libres&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le contraste entre la pauvret&#233; et la richesse, aux deux extr&#234;mes de la soci&#233;t&#233; mexicaine, semble avoir &#233;t&#233; plus remarquable d'ann&#233;e en ann&#233;e. Les t&#233;moins d&#233;clar&#232;rent au p&#232;re Sahag&#249;n que le palais de l'empereur, le &#171; tecpan &#187;, &#233;tait un &#171; endroit terrible, un lieu de peur&#8230; de vantardise&#8230; d'arrogance, d'enivrement, de flatterie, de perversion. &#187; Les chevaliers de l'aigle et du jaguar s'y pavanent. Pendant ce temps-l&#224;, les pauvres mangent sans doute moins bien qu'ils ne l'avaient jamais fait&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Aggravant la division des classes, il y avait la perte de pouvoir des calputin, ces clans qui avaient g&#233;r&#233; la soci&#233;t&#233; civile dans les premiers temps. Y appartenir avait permis aux hommes et aux femmes ordinaires de faire partie de la collectivit&#233;&#8230; Calputin et gouvernement &#233;taient en conflit, dans la mesure o&#249; l'empereur accordait de plus en plus souvent les terres, alors que les calputin consid&#233;raient que celles-ci appartenaient &#224; leur autorit&#233;, par tradition&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Quarante ans plus t&#244;t, Tlatelolco (&#171; la butte de terre &#187;), alors ville commer&#231;ante, semi-ind&#233;pendante, &#224; deux kilom&#232;tres au nord, sise sur une &#238;le reli&#233;e &#224; la capitale par plusieurs larges chauss&#233;es, dont la population &#233;tait aussi mexicaine mais qui avait connu une lign&#233;e distincte de monarques, avait tent&#233; de recouvrer sa pleine ind&#233;pendance. L'apog&#233;e de la crise intervint lors d'une de ces querelles qui, en Europe, provoquaiente les guerres&#8230; Tlatelolco fut envahie et vaincue&#8230; La ville et les villes vassales furent incorpor&#233;es &#224; Tenochtitlan en tant que &#171; cinqui&#232;me quartier &#187;. Ses habitants, bien qu'ils fussent parents des Mexica, durent d&#233;sormais payer tribut &#224; un &#171; gouverneur militaire &#187;, Itzquauhtzin, fr&#232;re de l'empereur, toujours en poste en 1518. Les vainqueurs se disput&#232;rent le c&#233;l&#232;bre march&#233;. Les Tlatelolco &#233;taient amers. Ils s'enchantaient, f&#251;t-ce en secret, de toute d&#233;convenue essuy&#233;e par Tenochtitlan&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'empire mexicain semblait avoir atteint ses limites. Les monarques successifs avaient repouss&#233; les fronti&#232;res, en partie mus par la n&#233;cessit&#233; de garantir les ressources venues des r&#233;gions chaudes ou temp&#233;r&#233;es, en partie pour la raison connue de la plupart des empires : il est difficile de mettre un terme &#224; l'habitude d'agresser. Mais envisager davantage de grandes guerres devenait probl&#233;matique&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En 1504, les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques vainquirent les Mexica dans une guerre&#8230;. Les Mexica ripost&#232;rent en imposant des sanctions &#224; Tlaxcala : il n'y aurait plus d'&#233;change de coton ni de sel. La menace &#233;tait s&#233;rieuse, dans la mesure o&#249; les Mexica avaient vassalis&#233; tous les territoires entourant Tlaxcala, y compris les terres tropicales &#224; l'est. Les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques, sous l'&#233;gide de vieux seigneurs exp&#233;riment&#233;s, tinrent bon... Les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques &#233;taient pleins de ressort. Ils &#233;taient cern&#233;s par l'Empire mexicain, mais se persuadaient qu'ils restaient libres. Leur fa&#231;on de cultiver la terre n'&#233;tait pas sans &#233;voquer l'Europe : la plus grande partie &#233;tait travaill&#233;e par des laboureurs versant un loyer en nature aux seigneurs qui, &#224; leur tour, conservaient les droits naturels de base, dont celui sur l'eau et les for&#234;ts. Les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques avaient r&#233;sist&#233; plusieurs fois aux arm&#233;es mexicaines, toujours beaucoup plus importantes que celles qu'ils pouvaient lever. Non seulement ils &#233;taient libres, mais ils avaient pris l'habitude de consulter les villes de leur territoire, usage qui incita le conquistador, non sans extravagance, &#224; les comparer aux r&#233;publiques libres de G&#234;nes ou de Venise&#8230; Tlaxcala n'&#233;tait pas le seul territoire &#224; port&#233;e de Tenochtitlan qui e&#251;t pr&#233;serv&#233; son ind&#233;pendance. Il y avait aussi la petite r&#233;publique de Yopi sur la c&#244;te pacifique dans l'Etat actuel de Guerrero. Il y avait Metztitlan dans les montagnes au nord-est ; il y avait les Chinantla, peuple montagnard dans la cha&#238;ne s&#233;parant la Vall&#233;e du Mexique et Oaxaca. Mais les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques &#233;taient de loin les plus importants et les seuls capables de nuire profond&#233;ment aux Mexica&#8230;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les Tlaxcalt&#232;ques furent les premiers &#224; combattre militairement les Castillans&#8230; Cort&#232;s lui-m&#234;me pr&#233;tend avoir &#233;t&#233; attaqu&#233; par 149.000 hommes&#8230; Apr&#232;s une victoire due aux &#233;p&#233;es, &#224; l'&#233;limination physique des victimes indiennes, aux canons, Cort&#232;s lan&#231;a une exp&#233;dition punitive, en br&#251;lant dix villes, dont l'une comptait plus de trois mille personnes, et en massacrant beaucoup d'Indiens. Une fois de plus, il semble avoir voulu terroriser les populations pour les obliger &#224; se rendre&#8230; Cort&#232;s et son exp&#233;dition p&#233;n&#233;tr&#232;rent &#224; Tlaxcala le 18 septembre 1519&#8230; Il en r&#233;sulta une alliance durable entre les chefs de Tlaxcala et Cort&#232;s qui allaient permettre la conqu&#234;te de Tenochtitlan et sa destruction.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les Espagnols, ayant vaincu puis mis de leur c&#244;t&#233; les Tlaxtalt&#232;ques, &#233;taient &#224; cent kilom&#232;tres de Tenochtitlan et l'empereur n'&#233;tait pas encore d&#233;cid&#233; &#224; les recevoir en h&#244;tes ou &#224; les d&#233;truire militairement. L'empereur et sa ville &#233;taient envahis par la panique. Le petit peuple &#233;tait tout agit&#233;. &#171; Les d&#233;sordes se multipliaient. On e&#251;t dit que la Terre tremblait, comme si la surface de la terre tournait dans le tumulte. &#187; peut on lire dans le Codex florentin&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Deux ou trois jours apr&#232;s son arriv&#233;e dans la capitale, le &#171; Caudillo &#187; visita le march&#233; de Tlatalolco dont il avait sans doute beaucoup entendu parler par ceux de ses hommes qui l'avaient d&#233;j&#224; vu.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'importance en &#233;tait stup&#233;fiante. Cort&#233;s estimait que le grand espace clos d'arches o&#249; se trouvait ce march&#233; faisait deux fois la grand-place de Salamanque. D'autres conquistadors, qui affirmaient avoir vu Constantinople et toute l'Italie dont Rome d&#233;clar&#232;rent n'avoir jamais rien vu de tel&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tlatelolco &#233;tait le centre du commerce mexicain et le plus grand centre d'&#233;changes des Am&#233;riques&#8230; C'est l&#224; qu'avait commenc&#233; le commerce du beau drap de coton, comme de bien d'autres articles. L&#224; aussi s'&#233;taient produits plusieurs incidents ayant d&#233;bouch&#233; sur les guerres de 1475, d&#233;sastreuses pour les Tlatelolca oppos&#233;s aux Mexica. A la suite de leur victoire, les empereurs de Mexico avaient ferm&#233; le grand temple de Tlatelolco sans oser ni souhaiter s'en prendre au march&#233;&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(Remarque de M et R : nous avons l&#224;, tr&#232;s rapidement r&#233;sum&#233;, une petite id&#233;e des luttes de classes entre seigneurs f&#233;odaux guerriers mexica et commer&#231;ant et bourgeois, ceux de Tlatelolco n'&#233;tant que les plus fortun&#233;s et les plus fiers d'eux-m&#234;mes et revendiquant leurs droits sociaux et politiques face aux nobles et &#224; l'empire qui s'appuyait de plus en plus sur les guerriers et de moins en moins sur les commer&#231;ants et n&#233;gociants.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le march&#233; comprenait une cinquantaine de secteurs r&#233;serv&#233;s aux m&#233;taux pr&#233;cieux, &#224; la vaisselle, aux v&#234;tements, &#224; la nourriture, &#224; la coutellerie, aux pierres, aux mat&#233;riaux de construction comme les nattes, la chaux et m&#234;me les to&#238;ts. On vendait s&#233;par&#233;ment les produits manufactur&#233;s et les mati&#232;res premi&#232;res. Les marchands professionnels et au long cours &#233;changeaient des articles de luxe, et d'innombrables petites familles, accapar&#233;es par les soins de leurs fermes, vendaient des g&#226;teaux de ma&#239;s (tamales) ou de la bouillie de ma&#239;s. Des &#233;tals &#233;taient d&#233;volus aux oiseaux, &#224; d'autres animaux, aux peaux. Le sel et les manteaux de coton &#233;taient les articles les plus r&#233;cherch&#233;s&#8230; Cort&#233;s d&#233;clare qu'il existait une zone du march&#233; o&#249; l'on trouvait plus de coton que de soie sur le march&#233; de soie de Grenade&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Apr&#232;s la guerre de 1470 qui avait oppos&#233; seigneurs de Tenochtitlan et bourgeoisie de Tlatelolco, suite &#224; laquelle la pyramide et le temple de Huitzilopochtli qui la courronnait et dominait le march&#233; de Tlatelolco avaient &#233;t&#233; abandonn&#233;s, Montezuma avait d&#233;cid&#233; d'essayer de se r&#233;concilier avec les marchands (pochteca), dont le quartier g&#233;n&#233;ral se trouvait &#224; Tlatelolco. Il leur conf&#233;ra m&#234;me l'honneur de partir en guerre au nom de la Triple Alliance. Ils devaient toujours verser un tribut comme s'ils &#233;taient conquis. Ils subissaient aussi un gouverneur militaire (cuauhtlatoani) nomm&#233; par l'empereur et non un monarque ind&#233;pendant&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Niant que les Mexica soient des &#234;tres humains comme les espagnols, Gin&#232;s de Sep&#249;lveda &#233;crivait dans &#171; Democrates Alter &#187; (1544) :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; Le simple fait que les Mexica r&#233;alisent de beaux objets n'est pas un signe de leur beaut&#233; morale. Certaines petites esp&#232;ces comme les abeilles et les araign&#233;es font des &#339;uvres d'art qu'aucun &#234;tre humain ne peut faire de fa&#231;on comparable&#8230; Le fait que les Mexica aient des rues, des maisons, des rois, etc., ne prouve rien de plus&#8230; Mais d'un autre c&#244;t&#233;, personne ne fait rien par soi-m&#234;me&#8230; c'est le signe &#233;vident du temp&#233;rament servile. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;(&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Au d&#233;but de 1520, l'exp&#233;dition proc&#233;da &#224; un inventaire financier. La valeur de l'or recueilli, offert ou confisqu&#233;, fut estim&#233;e &#224; 160.000 pesos. Le cinqui&#232;me royal fut donc &#233;valu&#233; &#224; 32.000 pesos. C'&#233;tait sans compter les bijoux d'or et d'argent qui devaient valoir, d'apr&#232;s le Caudillo, 75.000 pesos au moins&#8230;. On contesta ult&#233;rieurement le chiffre du butin. Les ennemis de Cort&#233;s l'&#233;valu&#232;rent &#224; 700.000 au moins. Lors d'un proc&#232;s, en 1529, on pr&#233;tendit m&#234;me que Cort&#233;s avait re&#231;u de Montezuma de l'or, de objets en plumes, des draps et de l'argent pour un total de 800.000 pesos&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;D&#233;couvrant le tr&#233;sor amen&#233; &#224; Charles Quint par les &#233;missaires de Cort&#233;s, Pierre Martyr &#233;crivit au pape L&#233;on X :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#171; S'il est arriv&#233; que des artistes de ce genre aient touch&#233; au g&#233;nie, alors c'est le cas de ces indig&#232;nes. Ce n'est pas tant l'or ou les pierres pr&#233;cieuses que j'admire que l'intelligence des artistes et leur savoir-faire qui doit d&#233;passer la valeur des mat&#233;riaux employ&#233;s&#8230; Selon moi, je n'ai jamais rien vu dont la beaut&#233; puisse davantage enchanter l'&#339;il. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La lettre de Martyr fut publi&#233;e sans doute avant la fin de 1520&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;H&#233;las nous ignorons tout de ce que les Indiens (totonaques) d&#233;barquant en Espagne pens&#232;rent de leurs h&#244;tes. Montaigne, dans son essai sur les cannibales, rapporte une conversation par le truchement d'interpr&#232;tes avec quelques Indiens venus du Br&#233;sil en 1562. Ils s'&#233;tonn&#232;rent que des hommes aussi solides que les Suisses de la garde royale aient accept&#233; de servir un enfant aussi ch&#233;tif que le roi de France du moment, Charles IX ; ils furent &#233;galement choqu&#233;s de l'in&#233;galit&#233; de la soci&#233;t&#233; fran&#231;aise&#8230; &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article5262&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire la suite&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Chronologie de la r&#233;volution portugaise de 1974-1975</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6501</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article6501</guid>
		<dc:date>2019-06-22T22:46:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>R&#233;volution</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Guerre War</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Fascisme</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>R&#233;volte</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Un commentaire du journal bourgeois fran&#231;ais compl&#232;tement &#224; c&#244;t&#233; de la plaque : &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
CHRONOLOGIE &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1926 : R&#233;gime autoritaire de l' &#171; Estado novo &#187;, dictature conservatrice et nationaliste qui s'appuie sur l'arm&#233;e, sur l'&#201;glise catholique et sur la police secr&#232;te et militaire (la PIDE). &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1930 : Mise en place de la dictature fasciste de Salazar au Portugal &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1968 : Echec militaire du Portugal dans ses colonies d'Afrique, notamment d'Angola et du Mozambique &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1970 : Remplacement &#224; la t&#234;te du (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique59" rel="directory"&gt;11- Portugal 1974-1975&lt;/a&gt;

/ 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot45" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volution&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot48" rel="tag"&gt;Guerre War&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot136" rel="tag"&gt;Fascisme&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot139" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volte&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


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&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Un commentaire du journal bourgeois fran&#231;ais compl&#232;tement &#224; c&#244;t&#233; de la plaque :&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;a href='https://www.matierevolution.org/IMG/jpg/assembleiadarepublicaversusconstruc3a7ao_civil_1_rd.jpg' class=&#034;spip_doc_lien mediabox&#034; type=&#034;image/jpeg&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.matierevolution.org/local/cache-vignettes/L500xH325/assembleiadarepublicaversusconstruc3a7ao_civil_1_rd-d88cf.jpg?1779675523' width='500' height='325' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
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&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;CHRONOLOGIE&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1926 : R&#233;gime autoritaire de l' &#171; Estado novo &#187;, dictature conservatrice et nationaliste qui s'appuie sur l'arm&#233;e, sur l'&#201;glise catholique et sur la police secr&#232;te et militaire (la PIDE).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1930 : Mise en place de la dictature fasciste de Salazar au Portugal&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1968 : Echec militaire du Portugal dans ses colonies d'Afrique, notamment d'Angola et du Mozambique&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1970 : Remplacement &#224; la t&#234;te du pouvoir de Salazar par Caetano et maintien du type de r&#233;gime, avec un poids particulier de la police politique, la PIDE, qui torture et terrorise. Le pouvoir, m&#234;me en changeant de mains, est incapable de faire rentrer le Portugal dans la modernit&#233; de l'Europe de l'ouest et incapable en particulier de sortir le pays de sa sale guerre coloniale qui n'est qu'un poids mort pour l'&#233;conomie et pour le climat social et politique, ne pouvant mener qu'&#224; des d&#233;faites.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1973 : D&#233;but de la r&#233;volte des soldats portugais de l'arm&#233;e d'Afrique, en grande partie des conscrits.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Une opposition d'officiers, d'abord plus d'ordre corporatiste que politique, s'organise autour du rejet par des officiers de carri&#232;re de deux d&#233;crets-lois (nos 353/73 et 409/73) cens&#233;s faciliter le recrutement d'officiers n&#233;cessaires sur le front africain en y incluant des civils ayant d&#233;j&#224; fait leur service.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;De novembre 1973 &#224; avril 1974 : il y a au Portugal 54 gr&#232;ves d'usines, dures, souvent avec occupations, toutes organis&#233;es en dehors des syndicats et du PCP stalinien.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1974 : Constitution d'une direction militaire du soul&#232;vement : le Mouvement des Forces Arm&#233;es ou MFA. Son programme : tout le pouvoir &#224; une junte militaire qui impose la fin de la guerre coloniale et un d&#233;veloppement moderne du Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 avril 1974 : Le coup d'&#233;tat militaire, dirig&#233; par le g&#233;n&#233;ral r&#233;actionnaire Spinola ex-gouverneur colonial de la Guin&#233;e, d&#233;tourne &#224; son profit le m&#233;contentement explosif de l'arm&#233;e portugaise, renverse la dictature fasciste de Marcelo Caetano, la rempla&#231;ant par la Junte militaire dite &#171; de Salut national &#187;, en esp&#233;rant ainsi pr&#233;server les fondements du fascisme d&#233;stabilis&#233; par l'&#233;norme d&#233;faite des guerres coloniales en Afrique (Angola, Mozambique, Guin&#233;e, Cap Vert).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le Mouvement des Forces Arm&#233;es annonce le renversement du r&#233;gime et appelle la population &#224; ne pas bouger et &#224; garder son calme.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Malgr&#233; les appels r&#233;guliers des &#171; capitaines d'avril &#187; du MFA &#224; la radio incitant la population &#224; rester chez elle, des milliers de Portugais descendent dans la rue, se m&#234;lant aux militaires insurg&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; Caetano accepte de remettre le pouvoir au g&#233;n&#233;ral Spinola, pour &#233;viter qu'il ne tombe aux mains des r&#233;volt&#233;s. Spinola constitue imm&#233;diatement un nouveau pouvoir avec &#224; sa t&#234;te une junte militaire, dite &#034;junte de salut national&#034;, pour &#233;viter tout vide du pouvoir bourgeois. Loin d'accorder imm&#233;diatement l'ind&#233;pendance aux colonies d'Afrique, le MFA et la junte n&#233;gocient durement avec les nationalistes. Ces pouvoirs militaires essaient de mettre en place toutes les barri&#232;res aux revendications et aux d&#233;bordements populaires et de trouver les relais civils de cette politique. PC et PS vont les y aider de toutes leurs forces.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Spinola, loin d'affirmer imm&#233;diatement qu'il ira jusqu'&#224; l'ind&#233;pendance des colonies d'Afrique, d&#233;clare qu'il est trop t&#244;t &#171; pour que les peuples puissent eux-m&#234;mes se prononcer sur leur avenir &#187;. Il n'envisage pas l'ind&#233;pendance mais un cheminement progressif vers&#8230; &#171; l'autod&#233;termination &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Spinola ne repr&#233;sente en rien les immenses aspirations du peuple portugais &#224; la paix, &#224; la terre, &#224; la d&#233;mocratie, au bien-&#234;tre, &#224; la fin de l'exploitation et de l'oppression, et m&#234;me pas les aspirations des soldats portugais. Les chars sont dans les rues mais ils n'emp&#234;chent pas les masses d'attaquer les casernes de la PIDE, la police politique tortionnaire, mortellement ha&#239;e du peuple portugais. D&#232;s le premier jour du coup d'&#233;tat, les masses vont prendre l'iniative d'actions qui d&#233;montrent qu'elles vont largement d&#233;border les espoirs de l'&#233;tat-major militaire et de toutes les forces bourgeoise, celles qui croient encore &#224; un repl&#226;trage du fascisme et m&#234;me celles qui se croient d&#233;mocratiques. Les ouvriers de la Mague (Alverca) d&#233;clenchent la premi&#232;re ngr&#232;ve ouvri&#232;re avec occupation qui lance tout un mouvement. Les soldats n'attendent pas les ordres et commencent &#224; quitter les casernes, &#224; fraterniser avec le peuple travailleur, descendent avec lui dans les rues. Les partis d&#233;mocratiques et de gauche (notamment PCP et PS, et aussi SEDES et CDE) soutiennent Spinola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Cr&#233;ation du Mouvement des Forces Arm&#233;es MFA qui pr&#233;tend unifier les chefs militaires qui essaient de dortir le Portugal de la guerre coloniale sans issue. C'est une institution contradictoire, alliant des hauts cadres r&#233;actionnaires &#224; des capitaines radicaux et aux aspirations petites bourgeoises d&#233;mocratiques sans pouvoir r&#233;el, incapable de d&#233;velopper une r&#233;elle perspective mais seulement de semer des illusions, tromperie soutenue &#224; fond par le parti stalinien et certains &#233;l&#233;ments de l'extr&#234;me gauche. Le MFA, en polarisant sur son nom les apsirations d&#233;mocratiques, vise en fait &#224; les encaserner, &#224; les brider, &#224; leur imposer sa domination militaire. Le &#171; Pacte MFA-partis &#187; donne la domination au MFA, autoproclam&#233; &#171; Guide la R&#233;volution &#187;. Le parti le plus attach&#233; au MFA est le parti stalinien PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1er mai 1974 : Grande manifestation de masse. C'est la f&#234;te C'est l'apparente unanimit&#233; pour la d&#233;mocratie&#8230; Les affrontements viendront plus tard. Les partis de gauche (PCP, CDE, PS&#8230;) font de la manifestation populaire le drapeau de l'alliance de toutes les classes, de l'alliance peuple-arm&#233;e et de l'unit&#233; nationale. Ils soutiennent &#224; fond le MFA et m&#234;me Spinola. Cependant, l'extr&#234;me gauche manifeste ind&#233;pendamment des forces bourgeoises et petites bourgeoises &#171; d&#233;mocratiques &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 mai 1974 : Alvaro Cunhal, dirigeant du PC portugais, explique au journal &#034;L'Humanit&#233;&#034; que &#171; L'alliance des forces populaires et du mouvement des militaires est la condition fondamentale de la victoire de la d&#233;mocratie. &#187; Le principal parti ouvrier du pays dresse donc une perspective parfaitement bourgeoise : sauvegarde de l'appareil d'Etat, de l'arm&#233;e, du pouvoir de classe et, en r&#233;compense de cette sagesse, seulement &#034;la d&#233;mocratie&#034;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 mai 1974 : Revenant d'un voyage en Angola, tout ce que propose le g&#233;n&#233;ral Gomes est un cessez-le-feu en Angola, au Mozambique et &#224; la Guin&#233;e. M. Soares est choisi comme n&#233;gociateur en chef de la bourgeoisie portugaise.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Mai &#224; septembre 1974 : des mouvements de gr&#232;ve ouvri&#232;re parcourent tout le pays (acieries de Barreiro, ouvriers du groupe CUF, ouvriers de la Lisnave, etc...), gr&#232;ves qui se d&#233;veloppent malgr&#233; la loi anti-gr&#232;ves, malgr&#233; l'opposition aux gr&#232;ves de la part du parti stalinien et des syndicats qui le suivent. Le PCP &#339;uvre en briseur de gr&#232;ves sous pr&#233;texte de &#171; sauvegarde de l'&#233;conomie nationale &#187;. Des mouvements de soldats et des manifestations de masse ont lieu contre les tentatives de l'arm&#233;e de continuer &#224; embarquer les soldats portugais pour l'Angola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;20 juin 1974 : A la Mutualit&#233;, Georges Marchais et Vitoriano accusent les groupes gauchistes de menacer le retour &#224; la d&#233;mocratie par des actions irresponsables.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;21 juin 1974 : Un d&#233;cret-loi du gouvernement limite la libert&#233; de la presse.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 juillet 1974 : Cr&#233;ation du COPCON dirig&#233; par Otello de Carvalho. Cr&#233;&#233; en tant que &#171; force militaire pour la d&#233;fense du MFA &#187;, il sera pr&#233;sent&#233; par nombre de gauchistes comme un instrument r&#233;volutionnaire aux c&#244;t&#233;s du prol&#233;tariat !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Juin-juillet 1974 : Deuxi&#232;me vague de gr&#232;ves (ouvriers boulangers, p&#234;cheurs, Carris, etc...) Irruption du mouvement de r&#233;volte des paysans pauvres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 juillet 1974 : Vasco Gon&#231;alves dirige le nouveau gouvernement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Juillet-Ao&#251;t 1974 : des journaux sont suspendus pour avoir rapport&#233; des manifestations d'extr&#234;me gauche de soutien aux ind&#233;pendantistes africains. Aucun soutien du PCP ni de la gauche aux journaux attaqu&#233;s ni aux manifestants d'extr&#234;me gauche menac&#233;s ou arr&#234;t&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 ao&#251;t 1974 : L'arm&#233;e r&#233;prime violemment une manifestation populaire contre la police politique, la PIDE et en soutien aux prisonniers mutin&#233;s de la prison de Caxias..&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 ao&#251;t 1974 : La police tire sur une manifestation pacifique de soutien au MPLA et &#224; l'ind&#233;pendance des colonies. Un mort.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 ao&#251;t 1974 : Le gouvernement r&#233;quisitionne les salari&#233;s de la TAP pour casser leur gr&#232;ve. Les ouvriers passent outre et poursuivent la gr&#232;ve.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Septembre 1974 : Deux r&#233;giments manifestent, s'organisent et annulent leur embarquement pour les colonies. Dans la classe ouvri&#232;re, le mouvement de masse impose aux partis et syndicats r&#233;formistes des coordinations de Commissions de Travailleurs. C'est contraint et forc&#233; que le Parti communiste portugais (stalinien) va s'y associer mais il ne va cesser, ainsi que l'Intersyndicale, de militer contre elles, de chercher &#224; les isoler, &#224; les discr&#233;diter. Cependant, jusqu'au 28 septembre 1975, ce sont les Commissions de Travailleurs qui vont diriger les batailles pour les augmentations de salaires, d&#233;j&#224; un point fondamental qui les oppose &#224; l'Intersyndicale et au PCP. Elles se mobilisent pour chasser les fascistes des usines, deuxi&#232;me point de divergence avec eux. Elles vont se mobiliser contre les op&#233;rations du pouvoir militaire, notamment en se mobilisant le 28 septembre 1974 contre la pr&#233;tendue &#171; manifestation silencieuse &#187; du g&#233;n&#233;ral Spinola. Ou encore le 11 mars 1975 contre les paras &#233;meutiers de Lisbonne. Mais les Commissions de Travailleurs p&#226;tissent de l'absence d'une perspective politique de classe. La spontan&#233;it&#233; ne fait pas tout&#8230; Il fallait que l'organisation de masse du prol&#233;tariat devienne une dualit&#233; de pouvoir, contestant le pouvoir d'Etat bourgeois et militaire. Aucun parti politique r&#233;volutionnaire, ni aucun groupe d'extr&#234;me gauche, n'a men&#233;, au sein des Commissions de Travailleurs, une telle politique. La question du caract&#232;re du pouvoir d'Etat que veulent les travailleurs n'a pas &#233;t&#233; pos&#233;e au sein des Commissions de Travailleurs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;10 septembre 1974 : Ind&#233;pendance de la Guin&#233;e Bissau. Le g&#233;n&#233;ral Spinola lance un appel &#224; la contre-r&#233;volution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 septembre 1974 : Manifestation des ouvriers de la Lisnave.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 septembre 1974 : Barricades r&#233;volutionnaires &#224; Lisbonne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;C'est le commencement de la fin des illusions sur le nouveau pouvoir. Une nouvelle &#233;preuve de force a lieu : des barricades sont dress&#233;es dans la nuit du 27 au 28 septembre aux abords de Lisbonne par le peuple travailleur soutenus par les r&#233;volutionnaires. L'arm&#233;e n'interviendra qu'au matin du 28. Spinola est intervenu directement en prenant les pleins pouvoirs. Il a fallu aussi annuler une &#171; manifestation de la minorit&#233; silencieuse &#187; qui &#233;tait programm&#233;e !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le g&#233;n&#233;ral Spinola d&#233;missionne et c&#232;de le pouvoir au g&#233;n&#233;ral Costa Gomes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 octobre 1974 : Le dirigeant stalinien Alvaro Cunhal affirme que le r&#244;le des militaires du MFA ne s'arr&#234;tera pas aux &#233;lections. Le PCP se pr&#233;sente ainsi comme le principal d&#233;fenseur du r&#244;le politique des forces arm&#233;es. Sur le r&#244;le de l'action autonome des travailleurs, il ne dit bien s&#251;r pas un mot ! Pour le PCP n'existent que les forces arm&#233;es, les institutions d'Etat comme les &#233;lections bourgeoises et les appareils syndicaux ! Pas de trace de la conception sovi&#233;tique des conseils de L&#233;nine chez Cunhal !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 octobre 1974 : Le MFA se dote d'une direction politique, le &#171; Haut Conseil &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Novembre 1974 : De nombreuses gr&#232;ves ont lieu dans les entreprises pour en purger les fascistes. Le PCP et l'Intersyndicale (rappelons qu'elle regroupe des syndicats prostaliniens, des syndicats d&#233;mocratiques et les anciens syndicats fascistes) tentent de s'y opposer.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;14 janvier 1975 : PCP, MDP et MES manifestent en faveur du &#171; syndicat unique &#187; qui devient pour eux un objectif essentiel afin d'encadrer efficacement le prol&#233;tariat en mouvement. Ce drapeau de l' &#171; unit&#233; prol&#233;tarienne &#187; permet au PCP de placer la division au sein des forces dites progressistes entre lui et le PS, revendiquant seul le contr&#244;le des syndicats. D&#233;sormais, la lutte entre PCP et PS est pr&#233;sent&#233;e par eux deux comme le point central de la lutte !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 janvier 1975 : Le MFA se prononce officiellement pour le syndicat unique exig&#233; par le parti stalinien. La loi sera vot&#233;e trois jours plus tard. Elle n'est pas seulement n&#233;cessaire &#224; la mainmise des staliniens sur le mouvement ouvrier organis&#233; mais au pouvoir pour &#233;viter des mouvements radicaux dans la classe ouvri&#232;re et la paysannerie pauvre.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Janvier 1975 : Le gouvernement envoie des forces arm&#233;es parachutistes d&#233;fendre les partis de droite et d'extr&#234;me droite attaqu&#233;s par l'extr&#234;me gauche. Le MFA interdit les manifestations et PCP ainsi que PS obtemp&#232;rent, pas l'extr&#234;me gauche qui manifeste le 25 janvier, le 31 janvier et le 7 f&#233;vrier contre l'OTAN.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;7 f&#233;vrier 1975 : Vingt &#224; trente mille manifestants d&#233;filent &#224; Lisbonne &#224; l'initiative des Commissions de Travailleurs de 38 usines de la r&#233;gion, &#224; la fois contre le ch&#244;mage et contre l'OTAN. La manifestation est d&#233;nonc&#233;e par le Parti communiste portugais (stalinien). L'extr&#234;me gauche d&#233;nonce &#171; Le PCP qui envahit l'intersyndicale pour mettre sous contr&#244;le la classe ouvri&#232;re &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 f&#233;vrier 1975 : Une commission MFA-Partis politique &#233;tudie les modalit&#233;s d'un processus d'institutionnalisation du MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 mars 1975 : Alavaro Cunhal s'en prend aux r&#233;volutionnaires trait&#233;s de &#171; gauchistes, qui se disent r&#233;volutionnaires, et ne peuvent que renforcer la position de la r&#233;action aux &#233;lections. &#187; Il d&#233;nonce les &#171; actions r&#233;actionnaires, destin&#233;es &#224; d&#233;t&#233;riorer la situation &#233;conomique &#187; par&#8230; des gr&#232;ves ouvri&#232;res !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;7-8 mars 1975 : La police tire sur l'extr&#234;me gauche qui manifeste contre un meeting du PPD &#224; Setubal. L'arm&#233;e et des unit&#233;s du COPCON appuient la police, faisant deux morts et vingt bless&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;11 mars 1975 : Tentative avort&#233;e de coup d'Etat de droite pro-Spinola. Mobilisation populaire contre une tentative de putsch. Cr&#233;ation d'un organe militaire, le Conseil de la R&#233;volution, qui prend la totalit&#233; du pouvoir. Le Mouvement des Forces Arm&#233;es signe un accord avec les partis dits d&#233;mocratiques. Il tente de tromper la classe ouvri&#232;re en lan&#231;ant des nationalisations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Alvaro Cunhal d&#233;clare : &#171; Le secteur nationalis&#233; est d&#233;j&#224; lib&#233;r&#233; de l'exploitation capitaliste, et il a &#233;t&#233; mis au service d'une dynamique &#233;conomique en faveur du peuple et du socialisme. &#187; Le PCP infiltre aussit&#244;t ses hommes dans les organismes de direction des entreprises nationalis&#233;es. La classe ouvri&#232;re, par contre, n'a aucun contr&#244;le sur la direction de ces entreprises. En fait, PCP et MDP-CDE se partagent le pouvoir r&#233;el dans les localit&#233;s et dans les entreprises.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;12 mars 1975 : Le MFA se constitue en organe sup&#233;rieur du pouvoir qu'il appelle bien s&#251;r &#171; organe de la r&#233;volution &#187;. Il proclame : &#171; Tout le pouvoir au MFA &#187; ! Il faut &#034;faire la r&#233;volution&#034; pour &#233;viter que le peuple travailleur la fasse et lui donne un tout autre sens. Spinola et 18 officiers sup&#233;rieurs se r&#233;fugient en Espagne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;13 mars 1975 : Nationalisation des banques.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 mars 1975 : Nationalisation des assurances. Des militants d'extr&#234;me gauche sont arr&#234;t&#233;s pour &#171; avoir distribu&#233; des tracts injurieux contre le MFA &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;18 mars 1975 : Le MRPP mao&#239;ste et l'AOC (extr&#234;me gauche) sont interdits d'activit&#233; politique durant toute la campagne &#233;lectorale des &#233;lections du 25 avril.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 mars 1975 : Le gouvernement d&#233;cr&#232;te l'interdiction de toute activit&#233; politique publique contre le MRPP. Le PCP soutient cette mesure. Le lendemain, Cunhal (PCP) d&#233;clare que &#171; Les partis qui conspirent contre la libert&#233; doivent &#234;tre interdits et leurs dirigeants s&#233;v&#232;rement punis &#187; !!!&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;27 mars 1975 : G&#233;n&#233;ralisation des occupations de maisons vides.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2 avril 1975 : Une plateforme d'entente MFA-partis politiques est sign&#233;e par PCP, PS, CDS, FSP, MDP et PPD.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;22 avril 1975 : Le PCP annonce que le PS est le centre cach&#233; de Spinola ! Bouscul&#233; par l'extr&#234;me gauche, se mettant enti&#232;rement ssous la d&#233;pendance du MFA, il cherche, pour faire croire qu'il serait l'aile radicale du mouvement populaire, &#224; pr&#233;senter l'opposition PCP-PS comme le point central de la lutte politique&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 avril 1975 : Campagne &#233;lectorale organis&#233;e par les militaires, pour canaliser l'&#233;ruption dans un cadre institutionnel bourgeois. Les &#233;lections ne favorisent pas le PCP (PS 38%, PPD 26%, PCP 13%).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 avril 1975 : Costa Martins, ministre du travail proche du Parti communiste portugais, d&#233;clare : &#171; Dans les moments difficiles que conna&#238;t le Portugal, on peut consid&#233;rer, en g&#233;n&#233;ral, la gr&#232;ve comme contre-r&#233;volutionnaire. &#187; Et il rajoute que, tant que les syndicats ne seront pas bien implant&#233;s il sera &#171; difficile de s'opposer &#224; un certain courant politique qui pousse &#224; l'occupation des usines. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Fin avril 1975 : Menaces de Vasco Gon&#231;alves contre la classe ouvri&#232;re, si elle ne se lance pas dans la &#171; bataille de la production &#187; pour la reconstruction de l'&#233;conomie nationale. Le PCP continue cependant &#224; affirmer que &#171; Le MFA est une avant-garde, aux c&#244;t&#233;s des autres forces d&#233;mocratiques &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1er mai 1975 : PCP et Intersyndicale organisent un premier mai progouvernemental dans lequel Mario Soares se voit interdire d'intervenir &#224; la tribune. Le seul &#171; radicalisme &#187; du PCP se fait contre le PS !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 mai 1975 : Le MRPP met en &#233;vidence l'existence de putschistes d'extr&#234;me droite au sein du MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 mai 1975 : Le PCP accuse le PS de &#171; polariser les forces r&#233;actionnaires et conservatrices, &#224; commencer par les groupes gauchistes pseudo-r&#233;volutionnaires &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 mai 1975 : La Pravda russe d&#233;nonce l'extr&#234;me gauche portugaise et appuie le MFA avec lequel l'Etat russe a entrepris des accords militaires et commerciaux.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 juin 1975 : Le COPCON ouvre le feu sur des manifestants d'extr&#234;me gauche devant la prison de Caxias contre la d&#233;tention de militants d'extr&#234;me gauche et antifascistes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 juin 1975 : Cunhal d&#233;clare : &#171; Un gouvernement militaire ne signifie pas n&#233;cessairement la dictature. Ce peut &#234;tre un gouvernement prot&#233;geant les libert&#233;s menac&#233;es. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le MFA nomme un responsable militaire, charg&#233; de s'interdire les &#171; purges sauvages &#187; contre les fascistes, putschistes, CIA et autres extr&#234;mes droites mis en cause par l'extr&#234;me gauche.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 juin 1975 : Nationalisation des transports de Lisbonne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;8 juin 1975 : Mutinerie d'une soixantaine de soldats refusant d'embarquer pour l'Angola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;17 juin 1975 : Manifestation ouvri&#232;re de l'extr&#234;me-gauche pour des Conseils r&#233;volutionnaires des travailleurs, soldats et marins, avec 2000 travailleurs de la Lisnave.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Radio-Renaissance est occup&#233;e par les travailleurs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;28 juin 1975 : Le MFA accentue le contr&#244;le militaire sur le pouvoir d'Etat.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 juin 1975 : 89 tortionnaires de l'ex-PIDE s'enfuient de leur prison&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 juillet 1975 : Le &#171; Conseil de la R&#233;volution &#187; d&#233;cide de mettre sous sa coupe le contr&#244;le des centraux t&#233;l&#233;phoniques et des stations de radio. L'arm&#233;e est pr&#234;te &#224; occuper les centres de tri postal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5 juillet 1975 : L'arm&#233;e place Radio-Renaissance sous son contr&#244;le.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;11 juillet 1975 : Les ministres socialistes se retirent du gouvernement. Six jours plus tard, les ministres du PPD s'en retirent &#233;galement. La coalition MFA-Partis bourgeois est rompue.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Juillet 1975 : 200 000 manifestants derri&#232;re le PS puis&#8230; plus rien ! Le PS a des scores &#233;lectoraux et s&#232;me des illusions passives mais ce n'est pas une force active et militante. Et sa conception de la d&#233;mocratie bourgeoise lui interdit tout d&#233;passement de l'ordre bourgeois. Le PS ne vise qu'&#224; &#233;vincer le PCP du gouvernement et &#224; se charger, lui, des relations avec les forces arm&#233;es.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;18 juillet 1975 : Face au meeting du PS &#224; Porto, le PCP organise des barrages pour l'interdire !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 juillet 1975 : Face &#224; un rassemblement du PS, le PCP et l'Intersyndicale organisent des barrages pour l'interdire !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 juillet 1975 : Un triumvirat militaire prend le pouvoir (Costa Gomes, Vasco Gon&#231;alves et Otello de Carvalho).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Juillet-ao&#251;t 1975 : irruption massive des paysans dans le mouvement du peuple travailleur. C'est un mouvement prol&#233;tarien qui va pourtant &#234;tre exploit&#233; par les fascistes et tous les anticommunistes, en particulier dans le nord du pays. Les paysans les plus mobilis&#233;s sont ceux des r&#233;gions de Famalicao, Povoa de Lanhoso, Braga, Santo Tirso et d'Aveiro et Bombarral. Les militants du PCP et du MDP-CDE sont violemment pris &#224; parti. En cause, la politique men&#233;e par le gouvernement soutenu par ces partis qui ne s'est nullement attaqu&#233; &#224; la mis&#232;re paysanne. Les paysans n'ayant plus d'argent pour acheter de quoi nourrir les b&#234;tes sont contraints de les abattre et de les vendre. Au lieu de dissoudre les anciennes organisations des exploiteurs fascistes, ces partis y ont positionn&#233; leurs militants. Le communisme, aux yeux des paysans du Nord du Portugal, est apparu comme une force arm&#233;e dictatoriale qui s'impose par la force et accroit la mis&#232;re du peuple.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1er ao&#251;t 1975 : Grande manifestation de Commissions de Travailleurs, de quartiers, d'&#233;tudiants mettant en avant l'alliance ouvriers-paysans.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le 4 ao&#251;t, le si&#232;ge du PCP de Povoa de Lanhoso est pris d'assaut et saccag&#233; par 300 paysans. Le 6 ao&#251;t, les si&#232;ges du PCP, du MDP et du CDE sont d&#233;vast&#233;s &#224; Santo Tirso. Le caract&#232;re de cette r&#233;volte n'est pas fonci&#232;rement anticommuniste. Les paysans et les autres manifestants font la diff&#233;rence entre le PCP et les r&#233;volutionnaires, n'attaquant g&#233;n&#233;ralement pas ces derniers. Les paysans r&#233;volt&#233;s ne se reconnaissent dans aucun parti politique et ne mettent en avant aucun programme social et politique clair. Ils ne sont manipul&#233;s r&#233;ellement par l'extr&#234;me droite fasciste qu'&#224; la marge et non durablement. Les grands b&#233;n&#233;ficiaires sont quelques grands propri&#233;taires latifundiaires qui ont r&#233;ussi &#224; profiter du refus du MFA de r&#233;aliser une r&#233;forme agraire radicale profitant aux paysans pauvres. PCP et une partie de l'extr&#234;me gauche diffusent la th&#232;se d'une r&#233;gion nord livr&#233;e aux paysans fascistes ! La politique du gouvernement &#224; l'&#233;gard des paysans pauvres, en particulier ceux du nord, ne change absolument pas ! Jamais le PCP ne d&#233;fendra une politique du type &#171; la terre &#224; celui qui la travaille &#187; ! Cela aurait signifi&#233; l'expropriation des grands propri&#233;taires latifundiaires, augmentation massive des salaires agricoles, suppression des formes f&#233;odales &#224; la campagne, restitution aux paysans des communaux occup&#233;s depuis le fascisme par les grands propri&#233;taires, aides d'&#233;tat aux travaux d'irrigation, aux engrais, aux machines agricoles, suppressions des dettes des petits paysans, suppressions d'imp&#244;ts, etc.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le programme du MFA, soutenu par le PCP, ne pr&#233;voit que la &#171; dynamisation de l'agriculture &#187; et une r&#233;forme graduelle de la structure agricole qui n'est encore m&#234;me pas appliqu&#233;e&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La r&#233;forme radicale et rapide aura lieu&#8230; dans le sud o&#249; elle est mise en place par la force par les paysans qui, sans attendre le gouvernement, le MFA ou le PCP, occupent la totalit&#233; des terres des grands domaines. Le PCP va se contenter, dans des r&#233;gions qui, elles contrairement au nord, lui sont favorables, de revendiquer la l&#233;galisation par le MFA des occupations de terres. Il s'est surtout mobilis&#233; pour &#233;viter que le mouvement spontan&#233; d'occupation ne m&#232;ne &#224; l'organisation autonome des paysans, en les faisant encadrer par les syndicats IRA et CRRA et que ces derniers se contentent de demander des aides d'Etat. Et surtout, la politique du PCP isole les paysans pauvres du nord, o&#249; ils sont proportionnellement beaucoup plus nombreux.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;10-11 ao&#251;t 1975 : Nationalisation des brasseries et des chantiers navals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 ao&#251;t 1975 : La gr&#232;ve anti-paysanne de l'Intersyndicale, soi-disant contre la r&#233;action, et du PCP est boycott&#233;e par les ouvriers et combattue par une manifestation des Commissions de Travailleurs &#224; Lisbonne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En ao&#251;t 1975, dans de nombreuses entreprises, des listes syndicales r&#233;volutionnaires battent les listes du PCP et de l'Intersyndicale.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;24 ao&#251;t 1975 : Constitution d'un &#171; Front Unitaire R&#233;volutionnaire &#187; (FUR) entre le PCP et certains groupes trotskystes (PRP, BR, LCI, LUAR) en soutien &#224; Gon&#231;alves, combattu au sein du pouvoir militaire par Melo Antunes et Carvalho. Cinq jours plus tard, Gon&#231;alves sera nomm&#233; chef du Conseil de la R&#233;volution. Un grand merci aux staliniens et aux pseudo-r&#233;volutionnaires et pseudo-trotskystes !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6 septembre 1975 : Gon&#231;alves est &#233;vinc&#233; du nouveau Conseil de la R&#233;volution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;9 septembre 1975 : Une opposition militaire nomm&#233;e &#171; Soldats Unis vaincront &#187; ou SUV, organis&#233; parmi les officiers pro-COPCON, forme un front de tendance soutenu par des pr&#233;tendus &#171; trotskystes &#187; pour d&#233;fendre Corvacho (PCP).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;De septembre &#224; novembre 1975, le PCP instrumentalise les FUR et les SUV pour encadrer les mouvements de masse et les soumettre &#224; sa propre d&#233;pendance du pouvoir militaire et bourgeois. L'extr&#234;me gauche qui a sem&#233; des illusions sur ces organisations a &#233;t&#233; enti&#232;rement manipul&#233;e par le PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;17 septembre 1975 : Trois cent entreprises sont occup&#233;es par les travailleurs.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;19 septembre 1975 : Sixi&#232;me gouvernement provisoire dirig&#233; par le PS et le PPD.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;30 septembre 1975 : Les forces arm&#233;es occupent les stations de radio et de t&#233;l&#233; de Lisbonne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1er octobre 1975 : Soares soutient l'occupation militaire des radios et de la t&#233;l&#233; &#171; qui a pour but de lib&#233;rer les organes d'information &#187; !&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3 octobre 1975 : Le PS appelle &#224; manifester &#171; contre le complot d'extr&#234;me gauche &#187; et pour d&#233;fendre le gouvernement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les SUV occupent les casernes de Porto contre la dissolution d'un r&#233;giment.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;16 octobre 1975 : Le Conseil de la R&#233;volution prend des mesures pour &#171; r&#233;tablir la discipline &#187; dans l'arm&#233;e.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;22 octobre 1975 : La Commission des Travailleurs reprend le contr&#244;le de Radio-Renaissance qui &#233;tait occup&#233; par l'arm&#233;e. Manifestation des SUV &#224; Lisbonne.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;29 octobre 1975 : Carvalho d&#233;clare que &#171; Ce qui serait dangereux, c'est qu'une extr&#234;me-gauche se livre &#224; un coup de type aventuriste, qui serait imm&#233;diatement utilis&#233; par les forces de droite &#187;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;13 novembre 1975 : Manifestation des ouvriers du B&#226;timent qui sonne la r&#233;apparition du mouvement ouvrier r&#233;volutionnaire sur le devant de la sc&#232;ne politique. Le PCP va tenter de profiter des craintes que cette mont&#233;e ouvri&#232;re va susciter pour valoriser sont propre r&#244;le d'encadrement des masses ouvri&#232;res et pour renforcer son alliance avec une partie de l'arm&#233;e&#8230; mais, m&#234;me s'il met en avant la crainte des militaires putschistes et fascistes et pro-capitalistes, cela se fait fondamentalement contre le prol&#233;tariat.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;PCP et MDP d&#233;fendent, comme perspective contre le PS, contre la droite, contre l'extr&#234;me droite, contre les militaires putschistes de maintenir les forces arm&#233;es au pouvoir ! Ils continuent &#224; affirmer que l'arm&#233;e est la principale force d&#233;mocratique et progressiste du pays !!! Bien entendu, jamais, au grand jamais, m&#234;me au plus fort des menaces putschistes de l'arm&#233;e, ces partis dits d&#233;mocratiques ne revendiqueront que la base des soldats s'organise ind&#233;pendamment de la hi&#233;rarchie et cesse d'ob&#233;ir &#224; l'encadrement en cas de putsch&#8230;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;16 novembre 1975 : Manifestation de 100 000 personnes organis&#233;e par le secr&#233;tariat des Commissions de travailleurs de la ceinture ouvri&#232;re de Lisbonne et soutenue par PCP, SUV et FUR.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;23 novembre 1975 : Manifestations du PS contre le PCP.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;24-25 novembre 1975 : Les grands propri&#233;taires terriens barrent les routes &#224; Rio Major pour protester contre des &#171; occupations ill&#233;gales &#187; des paysans pauvres.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 novembre 1975 : &#201;chec d'une tentative de coup d'&#201;tat des militaires se pr&#233;sentant comme d'extr&#234;me gauche. Nombreux mouvements en tous sens dans les forces arm&#233;es. Notamment, les parachutistes de Tancos occupent des bases militaires. Costa Gomes d&#233;cr&#232;te l'&#233;tat d'urgence. La RTV est occup&#233;e par l'arm&#233;e. Le syndicat des m&#233;tallurgistes appelle &#224; une paralysie de l'&#233;conomie et &#224; se rassembler devant les casernes. L'&#233;tat de si&#232;ge est proclam&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;26 novembre 1975 : Appel des syndicats &#224; la gr&#232;ve g&#233;n&#233;rale. Le PS appelle au clame et au soutien &#224; Costa Gomes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;27 novembre 1975 : Loi martiale. Perquisitions. Censure. Arrestations. Couvre-feu. Arrestation des officiers li&#233;s au coup de Tancos. Le PCP d&#233;clare : &#171; Il faut chercher une solution politique et n&#233;goci&#233;e &#224; la crise &#187;&#8230;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2 avril 1976 : Promulgation d'une nouvelle constitution pr&#233;voyant un pr&#233;sident de la R&#233;publique &#233;lu au suffrage universel mais ne disposant que de pouvoirs limit&#233;s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;25 avril 1976 : &#201;lections l&#233;gislatives : 35 % des voix aux socialistes, 24 % au PPD, 16 % au CDS de centre-droit, 14,4 % au PC. Mario Soares devient chef du gouvernement.&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Revolution and Counter Revolution in Portugal
(Part II)
&lt;p&gt;By Nahuel Moreno&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Masses Defeat the Sp&#237;nolist Counterrevolution&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1. The Government of &#8216;National Unity'&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The military &#8220;putsch&#8221; brought to power the first &#8220;revolutionary&#8221; government, that of General Sp&#237;nola. He tried to set up a government of &#8220;national unity,&#8221; in which there would be room for those ranging from the big bourgeoisie to the reformist workers parties. And all of the sectors were in agreement on giving full power to the general with the monocle&#8212;the MFA, just formed and just stepping into public view, did not dare nominate itself for government ; for their part, the traditional working-class parties placed all their bets on a regime of national unity. Thus, Sp&#237;nola became the dominant figure in the government. He surrounded himself with his friends as ministers, and handed over&#8212;as one who throws a bone to a dog&#8212;some ministries to the MFA, SP, and CP. Palma Carlos, one of his unconditional supporters, was named prime minister.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The fact that the MFA began to become consolidated as a political organization of the lower officers reflected in its own way the revolutionary crisis among the army rank and file. It is totally &#8220;abnormal&#8221; for a public organization of young officers to codirect a bourgeois army, since the essence of a bourgeois army is its absolute hierarchical discipline and submission to higher commands. If Sp&#237;nola had to accept this &#8220;abnormality&#8221; and incorporate it into the government, it was because of the fact that the rise of the mass movement imposed it upon him. In addition, he thought that in this way he could channel the rebelliousness among the young commissioned and noncommissioned officers toward normal strict military discipline, indispensable to the maintenance of the government they had brought into being. But the MFA&#8212;and we should bear this very much in mind &#8212; was not the same as the higher ranks of officers. And it resisted submitting to the discipline of the top officials. It thus reflected within the army the modern middle class, whose expectations were not identical to those of Sp&#237;nola and the Portuguese oligarchy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The participation of the Communist Party in the government was a new phenomenon in European politics of the past twenty-five years, since the last postwar period. If we except Chile, this holds true for the Western world. The formation of this popular-frontist government of class collaboration constitutes recognition by imperialism and the Portuguese bourgeoisie, that it is a developing proletarian revolution that they have to deal with. Precisely because of this, they were obliged, although unwillingly, to accept the flattering, collaborationist solicitations of the Socialist and Communist parties.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;From within the government the CP met the expectations of its dazzling bourgeois and imperialist allies. It did so by replacing the demand for a minimum wage of 6,000 escudos with one for 3,500, and by beginning, to &#8220;condemn certain workers struggles as &#8216;irresponsible' or &#8216;promoted by fascism' as occurred, for example, with the national strike of the postal workers in June of 1974.&#8221; (Aldo Romero, Portugal, Reconstruction or Revolution ? Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.1.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Despite this policy, and the equally traitorous policy of the Socialist Party&#8212;we stress the former because it has much more influence over the trade-union activists, and not because the latter has been less collaborationist-the working class movement continued to advance. It began to overcome the atomization of the craft unions inherited from fascism&#8212;and from the old anarcho-syndicalist tradition &#8212; and began to organize workers commissions in the big factories (Stalinism encouraged the development of industrial unions, and at the same time used them to create a centralized organization of industrial unions, the Intersindical, on which it imposed a hand-picked leadership). Against the recommendations of the Stalinists, the workers continued to engage in wildcat strikes, although sporadically, within the context of a slight lull in the working class movement as a whole provoked by the calls for passivity from the reformist parties.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. The Sp&#237;nola Government In Crisis : The MFA Shares Power and a Constituent Assembly Is Set Up&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In spite of the goodwill of the reformist workers parties, Sp&#237;nola government went from crisis to crisis, until the mass movement kicked it out. The laws of the class struggle are always more powerful than the reformist plans. The big bourgeoisie, divided at the end of the Caetano government over the advisability or otherwise of terminating the colonial war and &#8220;democratizing&#8221; the fascist regime, again united behind Sp&#237;nola after April 25, 1974. To slow down the movement of the workers and the masses, it put to good use the petty-bourgeois representatives of the working class (the reformist parties) and the modern middle class within the army (the MFA). But precisely the success obtained, that is, the slowing down of the workers movement with its consequent weakening, began to make petty-bourgeois democracy unnecessary to the bourgeoisie. And it was because of this that it attempted, through Sp&#237;nola, to reverse not only the developing proletarian revolution but also the democratic conquests already gained or that were being demanded.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This scheme, if it had succeeded, would have meant the transformation of the government into a Bonapartist regime, since the workers movement and its democratic conquests cannot be decisively crushed by a popular-front government, nor can a popular-front government survive when the workers movement has been defeated. It is no accident, therefore, that an important part of the bourgeois efforts to drive back the revolution was accompanied, on the one hand, by a strong anticommunist campaign, and on the other, by sharp clashes with the MFA. The bourgeoisie, therefore, after having used it to place a brake on the movement of the workers and the masses, entered into conflict with the petty-bourgeois democrats, who wanted to collaborate with the Sp&#237;nola government but within a bourgeois-democratic regime that respected the reformist parties and the MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This dispute between the two sectors of the government became concretized around the question of whether to call for presidential elections or for elections to the Constituent Assembly. Sp&#237;nola and the big bourgeoisie held that a strong, authoritarian government was required. They therefore considered it imperative to immediately impose a Bonapartist regime by means of a presidential election, which in reality would simply mean a plebiscite in favor of Sp&#237;nola. They were thinking of ending the braking process, and, if necessary, crushing the workers movement, at the same time ridding themselves of the captains of the MFA and of the workers parties, most particularly the CP, the bothersome agent of Moscow in a government that sought to remain in NATO and the Iberian Pact, and enter the European Common Market. The petty-bourgeois democrats were opposed to this plan and advocated, at that time in a united way, the Constituent Assembly.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The other cause of dispute was the colonial question. The revolution in Portuguese Africa was greatly helped by the process opened up in the metropolis. The Black soldiers in the Portuguese army began to desert, and the white soldiers, officers, and noncommissioned officers began to insist on going back home. At the same time, a Portuguese Trotskyist soldier interviewed by Gerry Foley said, &#8220;In the period after April 25, 1974, when struggles were still taking place with the Sp&#237;nolistas, who were opposed to decolonization and wanted a clearer form of neocolonialism, when massive shipments of troops were still being made to the colonies, struggles did occur. Some groups of soldiers even refused to go.&#8221; (Intercontinental Press, May 5, 1975, p. 588.) Faced with this situation, the big bourgeoisie and its representative, Sp&#237;nola, hoped to negotiate an end to the war from a position of strength, in order to impose on the colonies their transformation into provinces or states associated with the empire. The petty-bourgeois democrats, for their part, wanted to negotiate independence with the national liberation movements ; a conditional independence favoring the empire, but independence in the final count.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In July 1974, this crisis became public when Palma Carlos declared that to prevent anarchy it was necessary to call for presidential, not Constituent Assembly, elections. Even though the workers movement had been demobilized, the combination of the rise of the colonial revolution, the crisis in the army, and the desperation of the petty-bourgeois democrats compelled Sp&#237;nola to rid himself of his prime minister and name in his place, Vasco Goncalves. In this way, he accepted the full participation of the MFA in the government. The policies of the petty-bourgeois democrats thus triumphed&#8212;constituent elections would be called, and the independence of the colonies would be negotiated. It was a partial defeat for the Sp&#237;nolist bourgeois counterrevolution, which, in the short period of time between August and September, would reveal itself through recognition of the independence of Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. The Masses Liquidate Sp&#237;nola Government&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But, after blundering, Sp&#237;nola prepared to counterattack, aided indirectly by the freezing of the workers and popular struggles for which the MFA and the reformist parties were responsible. In agreement with them, he began to attack freedom of the press by banning a Maoist daily. He followed up by proclaiming a law against the right to strike and by organizing a new military region in Lisbon, the COPCON (Comando Operacional do Continente), the clear counterrevolutionary purpose of which was &#8220;to intervene directly, in support of civilian authorities and at their command, to maintain and reestablish order.&#8221; Immediately, the COPCON went into action to &#8220;break strikes and small leftist demonstrations.&#8221; (Gus Horowitz, op. cit., p.18.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As Romero points out in the article already mentioned from Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.1, &#8220;repressive and anti working class measures were committed by the most reactionary sectors : the violent repression of a demonstration in support of the MPLA, resulting in one death and several wounded by gunshot, prohibition of working-class demonstrations, military intervention against the strike of the workers from Transportes Aereos Portugueses [Portuguese Air Transport] Once again, the big bourgeoisie and Sp&#237;nola began to feel strong, to the point of publicly announcing their opposition to the independence of Angola and openly coming out against the MFA and Vasco Goncalves. The tension mounted as the presidency and other sectors of government began to launch clear anticommunist and anti-worker allegations. On September 10, Sp&#237;nola personally called upon a supposedly &#8216;silent majority' to put an end to anarchy, and on the twenty-eighth of the same month, a provocation was engaged in, probably with the intent of its serving as a cover or pretext for a phony coup that would facilitate declaring a state of siege and the assumption of full powers by Sp&#237;nola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The budding counterrevolutionary coup obliged the Communist Party, the most threatened, to desperately defend itself, and it called upon the masses to fight. They responded with an audacity and decisiveness that crushed the first counterrevolutionary attempt of the Portuguese bourgeoisie (which, by the way, objectively closed the sociological debate over whether the bourgeoisie was reactionary or included &#8220;progressive&#8221; sectors). According to what Romero reports in Intercontinental Press (quoted by Horowitz in the article we have published here), the workers &#8220;acted both in advance of and independently of the MFA and the provisional government, and paid more attention to the instructions of the CP and the Intersindical than to those of the military.&#8221; (Intercontinental Press, October 28, 1974, p.1395.) In plain language, despite the fact that the MFA was also threatened by the coup, its behavior was pitiful. The mobilization of the people and the workers mobilizations thus stopped the counter-revolutionary coup, and saved and raised to power the petty-bourgeois democrats, mainly the MFA, which had sought for months to dismantle this same mobilization.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;4. The MFA-CP-SP Government Slows Down the Masses&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The great victory of the movement of the workers and the masses&#8212;and of the CP itself, which participated fully in the mobilization against Sp&#237;nola&#8212;compelled the bourgeoisie to change its policies and its government. The tough, old-fashioned general, who wanted to impose on the entire country the discipline of the barracks, was replaced by his &#8220;civilized friend,&#8221; who makes a custom of &#8220;talking, not giving orders,&#8221; General Costa Gomes. The bourgeoisie had become convinced, for the moment, that it could not regiment and defeat the movement of the working class and the masses. For that reason it looked over its following for a great negotiator capable of using petty-bourgeois democracy to decelerate it, stop it, and finally defeat it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The new bourgeois policy momentarily abandoned all Bonapartist capriciousness and turned toward the parliamentary forms of rule&#8212;it accepted the Constituent Assembly.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The bourgeois schemers had at their disposition three first-class instruments, all of them petty-bourgeois. The MFA would be in charge of appeasing the soldiers, noncommissioned officers, and radicalized officers in order to restore discipline in the armed forces. The Communist Party, willing as usual to collaborate with a bourgeois government in office, would avoid mobilizations and control the trade unions. The Socialist Party, which according to all the reports would win any election, would guarantee the innocuousness of the Constituent Assembly and any other electoral and parliamentary variant that might appear.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Under the new government, the class struggle repeated, but on a higher plane, the same sequence as under Sp&#237;nola. First, the collaborationist policy of the leaderships induced a slight retreat of the workers movement. Then, it rose again in an impetuous mobilization.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the government, the MFA, through Vasco Goncalves, called for &#8220;Sunday workdays,&#8221; and began to insist that the big battle was the battle for production. This &#8220;battle&#8221; was part of an emergency economic plan proclaimed on February 21, the essence of which was totally and absolutely capitalist : try to save the capitalist economy through greater exploitation of the workers. Assured of the support of the working-class parties for this plan, the MFA went further and tried political conciliation with the big bourgeoisie and its representatives. A careful campaign in favor of Sp&#237;nola was begun, freeing him of any responsibility in the former attempted coup because of having been drawn in through &#8220;deceit.&#8221; It did not publish the results of the investigation of those responsible for the attempt. It did not take any measures against the oligarchy guilty of involvement in it. It hardly carried out any purge of the officers in the army. And, as a proof of affection for the friends of the oligarchy beyond the borders, in February the Portuguese customs guards handed over a Spanish left-wing militant to the Francoist political police.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, the economic situation worsened by leaps and bounds. Unemployment already affected more than 200,000 people&#8212;more than 7 percent of the working population. Capital began to take flight abroad. Some enterprises were abandoned by their owners. Imperialism began to blockade the revolution economically.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5. A New Rise In the Movement of the Workers and The Masses Begins&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Toward the end of last year and the beginning of this year, the movement of the workers and masses began to confront these calamities.&#8216;The fall of Sp&#237;nola ,&#8221; says Romero in the article quoted in Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.1, &#8220;was followed by a relative impasse in the workers struggles, but since the beginning of 1975, popular resistance has intensified in a spectacular way [...]&#8221; And he continues : &#8220;Another area of struggle has naturally involved improving conditions, particularly in the factories. Innumerable demands have been made along these lines (rate of work, safety and hygiene, shifts, dining rooms, etc.). The most extensive demands are, at present, job security and wage boosts.&#8221; The revolution was taking its first steps in the countryside : Agricultural workers and poor peasants began to organize and fight against unemployment. Objectives in the mobilizations were not limited to &#8220;security and wage boosts&#8216; ; they included more general and revolutionary slogans : &#8220;countless workers assemblies in the factories in struggle have voted for motions in favor of nationalizing businesses that threaten layoffs, or more generally, nationalizing the monopolies.&#8221; Parallel to the strikes, other methods of struggle were becoming generalized. The first occupation of any importance was described as follows by Le Monde Diplomatique (June 1975) : &#8220;February 7 was a significant date : On that day, seven thousand workers from the workers commissions of Lisnave, for the first time in the history of Portugal, cast doubt on the right of ownership of the means of production&#8212;without yet venturing into the field of self-management.&#8221; The method of occupation would be extended, starting from there, not only to establishments, but also to the homes of fascists, the bourgeoisie, or simply homes that were not being used. Control of production also began to be attempted. In some enterprises, &#8220;the bosses income is withheld.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, the organization of the workers movement was spreading on a massive scale and acquiring a more and more direct character. The revolutionary upsurge coupled the organization of craft unions inherited from fascism with the rise of industrial unions, with the federation that attempted to assemble them&#8212;the Intersindical &#8212; and with the rank-and-file factory committees (the workers commissions), neighborhood committees, and all other types. The spectacular leap that has shaken Portuguese social and political life since the fall of Caetano has thus led to the simultaneous existence of craft unions, typical of the beginning of the trade-union movement ; the industrial unions and their federation, belonging to the capitalist era ; and the rank-and-file committees, characteristic of this period of capitalist decay and the transition to socialism. The rise of the industrial unions and the rank-and-file committees&#8212;the latter being a field in which the working class has taken the lead over the other sectors (tenants, soldiers, etc.), inasmuch as they have been established in the majority of the important factories since March 11 &#8212; points to the liquidation of the craft unions. The two forms of organization (industrial unions and rank-and-file committees) coincide in needing a single industrial organization at all levels&#8212;factory, company, country&#8212;but, at the same time, they are profoundly different. The first, institutionalized for more than half a century by capitalism, lends itself much more to bureaucratization than the committees, intimately linked to the rank and file, which represent them better than the unions and which arise only during periods of intense worker mobilization such as Portugal is undergoing. This difference was to be seen in the fact that within a few days of each other two demonstrations took place : One of them, on January 14, convoked by the Intersindical and led to demand its official recognition, brought out between 100,000 and 200,000 people under the leadership of the CP ; the other, very militant demonstration, convoked on February 7 by the &#8220;intercompany commissions,&#8221; which was led by the Maoist ultraleft, gathered in front of the Ministry of Labor to protest against layoffs, maneuvers by the bosses, and the presence of NATO in Portugal. On January 20, six days after the first demonstration, the government proclaimed a law favoring a single federation that in reality transformed the Intersindical into its initial nucleus. The Intersindical is a great gain of the workers movement, but it was deformed by the Stalinists, who bureaucratized it from the beginning and hand-picked its leadership to place it at the service of the bourgeois government. In any case, the process of struggle could not help but be reflected in the search for &#8220;combative and class leaderships,&#8221; Romero tells us in Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.1. &#8220;Recently the union slates backed by the PCP suffered spectacular defeats in the postal workers and bank workers unions in Oporto.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The army, for its part, was not immune to the upsurge of the mass movement. The triumph led the MFA to foster discussions about indoctrination in the barracks. But these did not go beyond the limits of discipline. In the already quoted interview by Gerry Foley, the case is mentioned of a soldier being punished because he dared to direct a barbed question at his commander during one of these discussions. All in all, they represented important progress, since they introduced political discussion into the barracks.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning last January, everything began to change. &#8220;A climate of &#8216;deliberations' spread through the ranks, and along with the rejection of arbitrary disciplinary measures, collective demands and protests are not uncommon. Let us also point to facts such as the recent one [February 8] when COPCON forces were deployed in order to contain a workers demonstration that had not been authorized :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Confronted by the demonstrators, the soldiers made a half turn. Pointing their arms in another direction and raising their fists, they shouted, &#8216;Soldiers and sailors are also exploited.' (Romero, Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.1.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6. The Sp&#237;nolist Counter-revolutionists Think the Hour Has Come for a New &#8216;Putsch'&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The general upsurge of the workers and the people induced a new division within the Portuguese bourgeoisie. A minority, represented by Costa Gomes, continued to bet on the Constituent Assembly, on the betrayal of the Socialist and Communist parties, and on the use of the MFA. In short, on a popular front. The majority, becoming desperate, lost patience and gathered behind Sp&#237;nola in preparations for a coup d'&#233;tat, in a renewed Bonapartist attempt.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The fact that the fright of the bourgeoisie was also reflected among the army officers helped the plan for a new coup. The New York Times commented at the time that the officers were leaning toward the right. A symptomatic fact proved this to be correct : The elections to the Councils of Arms convoked by the MFA were won by the most reactionary officers, sworn enemies of the MFA itself. The MFA proved incapable of repudiating the outcome, despite the injury dealt the MFA, and despite the fact that the gains made by the reactionaries formed part of the preparation of the projected coup.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The MFA began to have doubts as to the best way to slow down and defeat the revolution. Two options were open to it : on one hand, the one that leaned&#8212;with the Constituent Assembly&#8212;toward a parliamentary regime ; on the other hand, the perspective of a directly dictatorial, Bonapartist regime. The urgent need to overcome the crisis of its regime inclined it to try to suppress its contradictions along the Bonapartist road.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The general crisis and the profound differences within the MFA caused by the upsurge were also expressed in the struggle between the Communist and the Socialist parties. This struggle became more and more acute, reaching such a degree that two opposing demonstrations, set for December 30, came close to a confrontation. The reasons for this dispute lie in the fact that although neither of the two defends the interests of the working class (and in this they are the same), both of them have different specific interests.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The rightist course of the officers, the electoral defeat of the MFA within the army along with the resulting &#8220;impasse,&#8221; the fight between the two big working-class parties, the doubts over the call for a Constituent Assembly&#8212;all of these elements made the ultra-reactionary, desperate wing of the big bourgeoisie and officers believe that the time had come for revenge. Led by Sp&#237;nola, the counterrevolutionary coup was finally launched. The equation was almost complete, but an unknown was missing, the reaction of the working class, the movement of the masses and the soldiers. It was terrific, the workers and soldiers began to occupy factories and barracks. The failure of the putsch was so resounding that the imperialist press affirmed it had been a provocation. This wasn't so ; it had a great deal of support among the officers and had been carefully planned. What conspired against its success was the speed and combativity of the popular reply in relation to Sp&#237;nola previous putsch. If the Intersindical and the demonstrations and barricades characterized the response to the first &#8220;putsch,&#8221; the committees of workers and soldiers, with their occupations, characterized the response to the second Sp&#237;nolist attempt.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;IV. The March 11 &#8216;Putsch' Opens a Revolutionary Stage&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1. Four New Decisive Facts&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Sp&#237;nola defeat by the mass movement touched off a new series of events that, combined among themselves, opened a new stage of the Portuguese revolution. Four of them are the most decisive :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;First : The bourgeoisie melts away politically and physically as a class. Sp&#237;nola flight was not an insignificant event, but one of enormous symptomatic and political importance. Along with him, thousands upon thousands of members of the bourgeoisie fled Portugal, terrified over the strength of the mass movement. Some of the biggest families of the oligarchy and all the banks were expropriated. Important bourgeois figures, such as the Champalimauds, were imprisoned. A very hard blow was dealt the counterrevolutionary bourgeoisie, one that will take time and effort to recuperate from. Physically and politically it has vanished for a while from the political and economic scene. Only its shadow remains.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Second : The economic and social crisis, already very acute, is reaching intolerable limits. The bourgeoisie, upon leaving, abandoned many enterprises. When it has been able to, it has withdrawn its capital ; when it has not it has ceased to invest. Unemployment, which was already serious&#8212;around 7 percent&#8212;has climbed up to 8 percent and it continues to rise, affecting 800,000 persons at present. Production has been declining. Added to this is the return of the colons from the former African possessions, making unemployment worse and reinforcing the counterrevolutionary sectors. In face of this situation, tourism has declined and the crisis of the balance of payments has been deepening. The situation has been further aggravated because the big imperialist powers are not investing a single dollar in Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Third : Occupations of factories, stores, and houses are becoming more generalized, and land seizures are beginning to take place ; workers and tenants commissions are developing and some peasant commissions are beginning to appear. All commentators have described how, after Sp&#237;nola &#8220;putsch,&#8216; the banks were occupied. Romero, in his different articles published in Revista de Am&#233;rica up to No.4, mentions the factory occupations and workers commissions, but does not grant them any symptomatic importance. Horowitz, in his only reference to them in the article reproduced in this edition, says in passing that &#8220;occupations of factories and offices also spread.&#8216; Livio Maitan, for his part, also gives little importance to the question, although he says something (very little) about it : &#8220;The scope and dynamism of these mobilizations in recent months-the multiplication of strikes and factory occupations, the spread of revolutionary democratic bodies growing up from below, and political demonstrations such as ... February 7 ... by the Workers Committee&#8221; (Livio Maitan, The Role of the Armed Forces Movement in Portugal, Intercontinental Press, June 2, 1975, p.728.) Besides this, the author points out that the demonstration was led by the Maoists.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Gerry Foley, for his part, states : &#8220;Factory committees do not yet exist everywhere, but they fulfil an important function in the big plants ... The Workers Committee elected by an assembly of all the workers in the plant is much better able to represent the work force effectively than the fragmented unions. It is also considerably more democratic.&#8221; Later he reports how, in Oporto, &#8220;on the night of March 11, these committees organized vigilance pickets.&#8221; These committees and pickets from the above-mentioned factory kept on functioning, &#8220;rooting out rightists from the administration and the shop.&#8221; (Gerry Foley, Portuguese Trotskyists Call for National Workers Assembly, Intercontinental Press, April 21, 1975, p.527.) Combate Socialista, in one of its issues, without giving it any importance, informs us of the deep trend toward centralization of these workers commit tees, when it reports the existence of a &#8220;coordinating committee of the CUF commissions (the most important monopolist group in Portugal). And it confirms Livio Maitan in relation to the February 7 demonstration (which it characterizes as an example of combativity), called for by an &#8220;interfactory committee.&#8221; Finally, whether the lucid commentator of Le Monde Diplomatique (June 1975) exaggerates, he is close to the truth when he states : &#8220;The occupations of factories, land, palaces, and buildings-the latter rapidly transformed into popular clinics, centers for mutual aid, child-care centers, recreation or resting places or into headquarters of popular organizations-have taken the parties in the coalition by surprise ... nevertheless, the PCP and Intersindical were losing speed, while the rank-and-file organizations and committees consolidated their counter-power.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Fourth : The crisis in the army acquires a new magnitude with the flight of the reactionary officers, the spread of committees and assemblies of the soldiers and noncommissioned officers, which begin to put into question the military hierarchy. Of all the new developments, the most important is the one beginning to take place in the armed forces, described to Gerry Foley by a soldier as follows : &#8220;After March 11, a general assembly of soldiers was held. Not only the commander and deputy commander were purged, but all the Sp&#237;nolista officers down to the level of sergeants. A cousin of Gen. Galv&#227;o de Melo, who was a junior sergeant, was also purged.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The comrades felt a need to move forward and take control of the barracks. They decided in the general assembly to form various committees ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8220;After the purge,&#8221; he says further on, &#8220;the military hierarchy was broken, since the ousted commanders were replaced with lower-ranking officers.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In Coimbra, the &#8220;the rank and file threw out two officers assigned to the barracks by the Council of the Revolution.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the same article by Gerry Foley, the soldier points out that &#8220;in the navy, where the political consciousness of the rank and file is higher, there exists a committee of sailors which discusses the orders given by the officers, and which can accept or reject them.&#8221; [3] And Romero (Revista de Am&#233;rica, No.4) confirms it : &#8220;On May 1, several hundred sailors of all ranks participated in the demonstration, in accordance with what had been decided on in the general assemblies of their bases and some ships&#8212;later a &#8216;higher order' ratified the decision arrived at democratically.&#8221; All these facts indicate the dynamic that the situation within the bourgeois armed forces has taken. But these are just the beginning ; they still have not become generalized nor has the qualitative point been reached at which the army begins the plunge toward total and definite collapse : the appointment of officers by the soldiers through the promotion of noncommissioned officers. Together with this process taking place at the level of the rank and file, the defeat of the &#8220;putsch&#8221; gave the timid MFA enough encouragement to annul the outcome of the elections to the Councils of Arms, which, as we have already seen, had been unfavorable to the MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. The Transitional Program Defines This Situation&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In relation to both the occupations as well as the factory and enterprise commissions, the Transitional Program is categorical :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; Sit-down strikes, the latest expression of this kind of initiative, go beyond the limits of &#8216;normal' capitalist procedure. Independently of the demands of the strikers, the temporary seizure of factories deals a blow to the idol, capitalist property. Every sit-down strike poses in a practical manner the question of who is the boss of the factory : the capitalist or the workers ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; If the sit-down strike raises the question episodically, the factory committee gives it organized expression. From the moment that the committee makes its appearance, a factual dual power is established in the factory. By its very essence it represents the transitional state, because it includes in itself two irreconcilable regimes : the capitalist and the proletarian. The fundamental significance of factory committees is precisely contained in the fact that they open the doors if not to a direct revolutionary, then to a pre-Revolutionary period-between the bourgeois and the proletarian regimes. (Trotsky, The Transitional Program [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1973], pp.79-80. Emphasis in original.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As we have already seen, in Portugal we have not only occupations and workers commissions everywhere, but something much more important : a crisis in the armed forces and the germs of dual power within them.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. A Revolutionary Situation&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For some Marxists, the Portuguese situation &#8220;is evolving or maturing toward a pre-Revolutionary situation.&#8221; We think this definition is erroneous. Up to March 11, there was a pre-Revolutionary situation, and, since that date, a revolutionary situation has begun to mature, if we are not already fully in it. We choose Trotsky's definition : factory committees are a symptom that, at least, &#8220;a pre-revolutionary, if not a direct revolutionary period&#8221; has been opened.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We think that if to the occupations and committees we add the crisis in the army, with its soldiers committees and assemblies and the purges of reactionary officers, we are already in a direct revolutionary situation. And, with even greater reason, if we take into account the situation of the Portuguese bourgeoisie and economy. Referring to events of far less magnitude in the French army in 1936, Trotsky assigned very great importance to them : &#8220;The protest of the soldiers against the rabiot (the increase in the service term) signified the most dangerous form of direct mass action against bourgeois power.&#8221; (Leon Trotsky, Whither France ? [New York : Pioneer Publishers], p. 144.) Now, Trotsky considered the direct action of the masses to be the cause of the revolutionary situation : &#8220;The working masses are now creating a revolutionary situation by resorting to direct action.&#8221; (Op. cit., p.140.)With still more reason, then, &#8220;the most dangerous form&#8221; of that action.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Two shortcomings can be pointed out in our definition : the absence of soviets and of a revolutionary party with mass influence.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We think the first objection gives an absolute character to the importance of soviets. There are comrades who hold the opinion that, if they do not exist, there is no dual power nor a revolutionary situation. We agree that in Portugal only miserable buds of soviets exist, we have already stated that ; but there is a dual power concretized in the occupations and the workers commissions. This dual power is molecular, spontaneous to a large degree, but it exists and appears in a generalized way throughout the country. It is a form of dual power more primitive than soviets, but dual power anyway. The same can be said about the situation in the armed forces : No soviets have been organized, but the process is one of the development of a powerful dual power, which is just in its very beginnings, but which is sufficient to disturb the structure of the fundamental pillar of the capitalist regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The second objection, referring to the absence of a revolutionary party, can very well be based on Trotsky's definition, repeated several times, of the four basic conditions for the triumph of the revolution : confusion and division in the ruling class, a turn toward revolutionary solutions by the middle class, revolutionary disposition of the working class, existence of a strong Marxist party that poses the seizure of power. The first three conditions are clearly given in Portugal ; but the last one, the strong revolutionary party, is not.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For the classic Trotskyist analysis, the absence of the subjective factor, the party, in the framework of the other three conditions, characterizes pre-Revolutionary situations. From a formal point of view, the Portuguese situation would fit, then, in this category. This is what those who define the Portuguese situation as maturing toward a pre-Revolutionary one have probably taken into account.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Now, if we reason that way, we would find pre-revolutionary situations, different only in intensity, quantitatively, on the one hand in Bolivia in 1952 (when the bourgeois state apparatus had collapsed, the army had been defeated by the working class, and only the armed militias of workers and peasants existed), in Spain during the civil war, or in China after Chiang Kai-shek ; and, on the other hand, situations like the one in Argentina after the Cordobazo and the one in France before 1936, in which there was no arming of the proletariat, nor the appearance of organisms of dual power, nor the destruction of the bourgeois army or a crisis within it. It is obvious however, that between the first three and the last two there are profound, qualitative differences, which become obscured if we group all these situations under the common denominator of pre-Revolutionary. Argentina after the Cordobazo and France before 1936 were, to us, pre-revolutionary situations. Bolivia in 1952, Spain during the civil war, and China after Chiang Kai-shek went much further : They were revolutionary situations. Not classic revolutionary, because the revolutionary Marxist party was missing in them, but revolutionary &#8220;sui generis.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Trotsky, on several occasions, pointed out that &#8220;abnormal&#8216; revolutionary situations could arise which do not conform to classical conditions. In a premonitory article, entitled &#8220;What Is a Revolutionary Situation ?&#8221; he says : &#8220;It is not excluded that the general revolutionary transformation of the proletariat and the middle class and the political disintegration of the ruling class will develop more quickly than the maturing of the Communist Party. This means that a genuine revolutionary situation could develop without an adequate revolutionary party. It would be a repetition to some degree of the situation in Germany in 1923.&#8221; (Writings of Leon Trotsky-1930-31 [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1973], p.354. Emphasis added.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This means, according to Trotsky, that when the weight of objective factors takes very acute form, a revolutionary situation may appear even though the revolutionary party is absent. Later, in a elliptical way, without referring directly to the subject, he again gave a new hypothetical definition of an &#8220;abnormal&#8221; revolutionary situation. In referring to the historical possibility of the installation of workers and peasants governments formed by petty-bourgeois reformist parties, he pointed out that this could occur as a consequence of &#8220;war, defeat, financial crash, mass revolutionary pressure, etc.&#8221; (The Transitional Program, op. cit., p.95.) These conditions and others not mentioned could, then, give rise to a situation leading to the formation of a revolutionary, workers and peasants government, the anteroom of a dictatorship of the proletariat, without the precondition of a revolutionary Marxist party.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In Portugal we see assembled to overflowing, the conditions for a revolutionary situation, &#8220;sui generis&#8221; as we see it, just as predicted by Trotsky. There was &#8220;war&#8221; and &#8220;defeat&#8216; ; there is an economic crisis and a &#8220;revolutionary offensive of the masses,&#8221; as well as a &#8220;general revolutionary transformation of the proletariat and the middle class and the political disintegration of the ruling class.&#8216;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;4. The Organically Counterrevolutionary Role of the MFA-CP-SP Bars Any Possibility of Portugal Becoming a China or Cuba&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This possibility of forming workers and peasants governments, which Trotsky considered very remote&#8212;let us clarify, in passing, that this was because he believed, among other things, that revolutions would occur in the Western countries immediately following the war&#8212;became common in the second postwar period. The Chinese, Indochinese, Korean and Cuban revolutions followed that pattern. That led us to maintain that we were dealing with &#8220;sui generis&#8216; revolutionary situations that did not follow the classical schema. We made an effort to define this new revolutionary situation and we pointed out that it was characterized by the fact that the objective factors indicated by Trotsky had acquired a permanent, chronic character. In our opinion, the revolutionary situations we have seen in this postwar period have been caused by the enormous weight of the objective situation. Fundamentally, by an economic and social crisis of a chronic character that impelled the petty-bourgeois masses into a very acute revolutionary upsurge and forced their parties to break with imperialism and the landowners, turning to guerrilla warfare, which destroyed the repressive apparatus of the bourgeois regime. It is an approach completely opposite to that of the Guevarist guerrillas, to whom a revolutionary situation is unleashed essentially by the subjective factor, the guerrilla group of the armed vanguard that sets heroic examples for the masses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The international situation helped or facilitated the guerrilla warfare of the petty-bourgeois parties. The inter-imperialist war, the crisis and reconversion of imperialism during the immediate postwar period, and the &#8220;cold war&#8221; enabled these parties to count on a wide margin of maneuver and confronted them with a weakened counterrevolution, unable to meet the petty-bourgeois colonial revolution with a solid united front. The cold war had, in its way, the same effect : It divided the counter-revolutionary bloc of the United States and the Soviet bureaucracy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Another element of considerable weight, which has not received the recognition it deserves, is the subjective factor of the counterrevolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;With good reason, we Trotskyists have emphasized the importance the politics and leadership of the parties claiming to represent the working class have on the development of the revolutionary process. It is otherwise with our attitude toward the politics and tactics of the leaders and parties of the exploiters : We do not analyze them with the same amount of interest. Nevertheless, in a revolutionary situation, these are elements of prime importance. The disastrous&#8212;from the point of view of their own interests&#8212;politics of Chiang Kai-shek, of the French and Yankee imperialists, and of Batiste and Washington had a decisive influence in the triumph of the Chinese, Indochinese, and Cuban revolutions. A much more careful and refined political line followed by the French and Yankee imperialists in Bolivia and Algeria, respectively, was able to block revolutionary victories in those countries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But the international and subjective situation of counterrevolution has radically altered the possibility of new &#8220;sui generis&#8216; revolutionary triumphs, like those seen in the last thirty years. The crisis in the counterrevolutionary front has abated and the divisions are being closed. The bloc of the imperialist countries and the bureaucracies of the USSR and China aimed at sidetracking the revolution is today quite solid, without great fissures. And all of them have learned from the new &#8220;revolutionary situations.&#8221; Nothing demonstrates this better than the change in the policies followed by French imperialism from Indochina to Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. Except for the recent outcome of the Vietnam War, it has been more than fifteen years (and it is not by chance) since &#8220;sui generis&#8216; revolutionary victories, giving rise to workers and peasants government, have taken place. And the victory in Indochina is the product of the combination of the heritage of more than thirty years of guerrilla war, from the period of the cold war, with the mass movement in the United States and Europe against the imperialist war.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We do not say that these victories will not again be repeated in the colonial and the semicolonial countries. But, for that to occur, they will have to count on a new factor, much more powerful than the interimperialist crisis alone or the cold war : the rise of the mass movement in the metropolitan countries. Such is the case with the victory in Vietnam. But the counterrevolutionary united front between the United States, the USSR, and China is also functioning here to try to obtain what French imperialism succeeded in obtaining in Algeria : driving the workers and farmers government back into a capitalist regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;All these factors are of prime importance in preventing a &#8220;sui generis&#8221; revolutionary triumph from taking place in Portugal, so that we do not come near to even a variant of a workers and peasant government. But, even though they are of prime importance, that does not mean that they are the decisive factor making that variant impossible. The essential factor making impossible a Chinese or Cuban variant in Portugal is the character of the Portuguese petty bourgeoisie and its parties.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The prognosis made by Trotsky in the Transitional Program (Ibid., p.94) : &#8220;the experience of Russia demonstrated, and the experience of Spain and France once again confirms, that even under very favorable conditions the parties of petty-bourgeois democracy (S.R.'s, Social Democrats, Stalinists, Anarchists) are incapable of creating a government of workers and peasants, that is, a government independent of the bourgeoisie,&#8221; is still valid. And more valid than ever for the imperialist countries, even if it turned out to be mistaken for the colonial countries. The reason is simple, even though Trotsky did not take it into account. It can be found in a class difference : that which exists between the petty-bourgeoisie of an imperialist country and the petty-bourgeoisie of a colonial or semi-colonial country. The former enjoys a privileged situation thanks to the exploitation of the backward countries ; the latter, including the peasantry, lives in a chronic and insoluble crisis because of the exploitation of imperialism and its agents, the national exploiters. That is why the imperialist petty bourgeoisie and its parties and organizations&#8212;the Communist and Socialist parties included&#8212;are organically counter-revolutionary, agents of imperialism. Stated in another way :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Because their privileged existence depends on the existence of their own imperialism, they are organically incapable of confronting it. That is the situation in Portugal today, where the MFA, the CP, and the SP compete with each other to find the most ingenious and quickest way of saving crisis-ridden Portuguese imperialism. This is the reason why there is no possibility that they will break with their imperialism and form a workers and peasants government. The slightest error or theoretical confusion on this question of principle will inevitably make us fall into the abyss of concessions to opportunism, capitulation to Portuguese imperialism and its agent : the MFA government.&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
The MFA Government&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1. Classical Bonapartism : An Unfortunate Definition&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; In other words, the Portuguese ruling class is compelled to have in power a sort of judge-arbiter, appearing to stand above the classes and capable of acting with decisiveness both to regulate the internal affairs of the capitalist class and to contain and repress the workers movement&#8212;acting in the last analysis as the representative of the capitalist class as a whole. In Marxist terminology this phenomenon is sometimes called &#8216;Bonapartism,' after Napoleon Bonaparte, who fulfilled a similar function, although in a much stronger way than the MFA can.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;That is how Gus Horowitz defines, in the previously mentioned article, the current Portuguese government : as &#8220;classical Bonapartism.&#8221; In this paragraph there are theoretical and political novelties by the wholesale that have astonished and worried us. But let us proceed step by step. Before considering the novelties, let us see what Trotsky had to say about classical Bonapartism :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; In order that the Little Corsican might lift himself above a young bourgeois nation, it was necessary that the revolution should already have accomplished its fundamental task&#8212;the transfer of land to the peasants&#8212;and that a victorious army should have been created on the new social foundation. In the 18th century a revolution had no farther to go : it could only from that point recoil and go backward. In this recoil, however, its fundamental conquests were in danger. They must be defended at any cost. The deepening but still very immature antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat kept the nation, shaken as it was to its foundations, in a state of extreme tension. A national &#8216;judge' was in those conditions indispensable. Napoleon guaranteed to the big bourgeois the possibility to get rich, to the peasants their pieces of land, to the sons of peasants and the hoboes a chance for looting in the wars. The judge held a sword in his hand and himself also fulfilled the duties of bailiff. The Bonapartism of the first Bonaparte was solidly founded. (Leon Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution, Vol.2 [New York : Simon and Schuster, 1936] pp.154-55.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We have only to read the two quotations to see that there is a great difference between them. For Horowitz, Napoleon Bonaparte &#8220;fulfilled a function,&#8221; that of &#8220;containing and repressing the workers movement&#8221; ; for Trotsky the function he fulfilled was that of &#8220;defending at any cost&#8221; the &#8220;fundamental conquest&#8221; of the revolution : &#8220;the transfer of land to the peasants and that a victorious army should have been created on the new social foundation,&#8221; and, in fulfilling that function, he &#8220;guaranteed to the peasants their pieces of land&#8221; and created his victorious army with the &#8220;sons of peasants&#8221; and the &#8220;hoboes.&#8221; In fulfilling that same function, he &#8220;contained and repressed&#8221; the feudal reaction of all Europe, which aspired to suffocate the bourgeois nation and restore the &#8220;old regime.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We must add that Trotsky's definition of Napoleon's regime has nothing to do with the current Portuguese reality, in which there are no victorious armies (in fact, there is a defeated army), no transfer of land to the peasants, nor anything else like that.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Let us go back to Horowitz. His definition poses a question of method that is really alarming. As we have already seen, he considers that Napoleon &#8220;fulfilled a similar function&#8221; to that of the MFA &#8220;although in a much stronger way than the MFA can.&#8221; Putting the pieces together, this would mean that Napoleon Bonaparte fulfilled, in a much stronger way than the MFA, the function of &#8220;repressing the workers movement&#8221; (!). But let us leave this aside. What is certain is that, for Horowitz, the differences between Napoleon I and the current Portuguese regime are differences of degree, quantitative, not qualitative, differences. Following the logic of his way of thinking, the MFA and its government are weak Napoleon Bonapartes ; Napoleon Bonaparte was, then, a strong MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We do not know by what method Horowitz is led to suppose that there can exist in 1975 a regime substantially similar to one at the beginning of the nineteenth century. All the circumstances have changed : Then, capitalism was rising powerfully ; today it is in decadence. Then the antagonism between the proletariat and bourgeoisie had &#8220;not yet matured&#8221; ; today it is fully developed ; etc., etc., etc. It is precisely these &#8220;small&#8221; differences between two eras that makes Trotsky distinguish very sharply between the Bonapartism of the rising stage of capitalism and that of its decadence.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; We always strictly differentiated between this Bonapartism of decay and the young, advancing Bonapartism that was not only the gravedigger of the political principles of the bourgeois revolution but also the defender of its social conquest. (Writings of Leon Trotsky&#8212;1934-35 [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1974], p.181.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; Historically, Bonapartism was and remains the government of the bourgeoisie during periods of crisis in bourgeois society. It is possible and it is necessary to distinguish between the &#8216;progressive' Bonapartism that consolidates the purely capitalistic conquest of bourgeois revolution and the Bonapartism of the decay of capitalist society, the convulsive Bonapartism of our epoch (von Papen, Schleicher, Dollfuss, and the candidate for Dutch Bonapartism, Colijn, etc.). (Writings of Leon Trotsky&#8212;1933-34 [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1972], p.107.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Napoleon I's Bonapartism was progressive, because it defended capitalist progress against the feudal reaction. Up until the end of last century, Bonapartist governments retained progressive elements (Bismarck succeeded in the national unification of Germany, Napoleon III gave a great push forward to capitalist development in France). But, in this century, with capitalism in full decadence and putrefaction, no Bonapartism in an imperialist country can be &#8220;progressive&#8221; ; it is&#8212;and it can not be anything else &#8212; counterrevolutionary, regressive, and opposed to historical progress.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;No regime, of any type, can be defined outside of the concrete social conditions in which it originates and develops. In the case of Bonapartism, this means that in our epoch a Bonapartist regime fundamentally the same as those in the epoch of the rise of capitalism cannot be repeated.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Furthermore, if Horowitz was right in his definition, this would go against what he wants to demonstrate. In fact, in that case, the MFA government would be a relatively &#8220;progressive&#8221; government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We will say no more about Horowitz's unfortunate definition.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. More Confusion : Bonapartism &#8216;Sui generis' ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But there is still another aspect to the question of Bonapartism. Trotsky analyzed a type of Bonapartism typical of semi-colonial and neocolonial countries. The weakness of the national bourgeoisie in these countries, where the main exploiter is imperialism, gives rise to governments that act as arbiters between the movement of the workers and the masses and the dominant imperialism. Insofar as the national bourgeoisie is unable to directly impose its own government, an arbiter appears and imposes itself between the two most powerful forces in the national scene.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;These governments can operate either as agents of imperialism, in which case they have an accentuated reactionary character, or they can base themselves on the worker and peasant masses to resist the pressure of the metropolis. In the latter case, they have a relatively progressive character, which, despite the historical distance, repeats some of the positive features of the Bonapartism of the last century. That relatively progressive character has its counterpart in the role these &#8220;sui generis&#8221; Bonapartisms play in preventing the working class from advancing along an independent path toward its revolution and in maintaining a resistance to imperialism within the limits of bourgeois property. C&#224;rdenas, Nasser, and Per&#242;n are some examples of this &#8220;sui generis&#8221; Bonapartism : bourgeois governments through and through, which defend their countries from imperialism by basing themselves on the exploited masses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Some MFA ideologists proclaim themselves to be adherents of the &#8220;third world&#8221; and compare their movement with those of the colonial and semi-colonial peoples, trying in this way to take advantage of the prestige and attraction the national liberation movements have on the European left, especially the younger layers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, they have found an echo within our movement. On the basis of purely formal terminology and comparisons, the MFA is presented as similar to the military regimes of the &#8220;third world.&#8221; Livio Maitan tells us, in his article, The Role of the Armed Forces Movement in Portugal (op. cit., p.728) :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The process we are seeing today in Portugal shows clear analogies with those that have already occurred in neocolonial, or economically and socially underdeveloped countries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;What are those &#8220;clear analogies&#8221; ? Here is what Maitan holds :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; In situations where the bourgeoisie finds itself unable to exercise its political hegemony by the normal means&#8212;the bourgeois-democratic parliamentary or presidential mechanisms, the formal or de facto dictatorship of a bourgeois party, and so on&#8212;in periods of deep political crisis, the military apparatus may emerge as the only force capable of running the state. More precisely, the army can play the role of a ruling party with the capacity to maintain the functioning of the essential mechanisms of the system. This need not necessarily take the form of a reactionary military dictatorship but can occur under the leadership of reformist or populist tendencies in the military (obviously the Brazilian dictatorship falls into the former category, while the Peruvian regime comes under the latter, to mention only the two most prominent examples in Latin America).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We confess that the author's method astonishes us. It leaves aside the fact that it is impossible to understand a government of any kind, outside the framework of the deep, structural, class characteristics of the country and of the situation it faces. Portugal is an imperialist country ; Peru and Brazil are semi-colonial countries exploited by imperialism. This is a decisive demarcation. No matter what type of bourgeois government may appear in Portugal, it will constitute above all an imperialist government. Any government of any type in Peru and Brazil must in some way reflect the great contradiction that puts the country as a whole into opposition to imperialist domination. The Brazilian regime has served as a direct agent of imperialism and an enemy of its own country. The Peruvian regime offers a timid defense of the country in face of imperialism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In Portugal no government of this kind could arise because the main exploiter is Portuguese capitalism. Naturally, the &#8220;third world&#8221; ideology of sectors of the MFA contains an element of truth. Portuguese capitalism is weak and backward, which arouses fears of colonization by its more powerful competitors. The strengthening of the state points in that direction : to have available a strong instrument to better negotiate with the other imperialisms and with the working class and the colonial movement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;While the most important by far, this is not the only difference between Portugal, on one hand, and Brazil and Peru, on the other. Portugal is undergoing the development of a working-class revolution and a crisis of the capitalist regime. There has been no pre-revolutionary, let alone revolutionary, situation in Peru in the last ten years. The Brazilian regime is the product of a counterrevolutionary stage.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;While Portugal is being shaken by an instability reaching a paroxysm, the two Latin American countries cited have enjoyed years of bourgeois stability (eleven in the case of Brazil : seven in Peru).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Again, we find that the only similarity between the three cases is that power is in the hands of the military. But, even considering the question from this formal point of view, Maitan's analogy is wrong. Let us see what our commentator says :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The only solid apparatus, the only relatively cohesive force, remains the armed forces, and precisely for this reason they are emerging as the dominant political force. The MFA, which arose and developed in this context, has thus become the real political leadership of the country. (Ibid., p.729.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Now, let us take a look at the reality. Between the Portuguese army, on the one hand, and the Peruvian or Brazilian, on the other, the only thing in common is that in both cases they are armies, and therefore, the final and decisive guarantor of the bourgeois regime. The armies of Peru and Brazil are normal armies in normal bourgeois situations ; they are cohesive and within them hierarchical discipline rules. The Portuguese army is completely anarchic, because it is immersed in the process of a revolution. All of its hierarchies have been thrown off balance. It has little about it that is &#8220;solid&#8221; ; it is split ; there is a group within it&#8212;a minority among the officers &#8212; that is trying in its own way and within the framework of the conditions imposed by reality, to save the bourgeois and imperialist order, even if it has to go against the &#8220;natural command structure.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;That is the MFA in the government. It is there not because it is military, but because the mass movement trusts it ; not because it is part of the &#8220;solid&#8221; apparatus of the army, but because that apparatus is going through such a deep crisis that it is unable to rule without basing itself on the captains.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Comrade Maitan makes another comparison in the same article as unfortunate as the one we have just considered. According to him, the Portuguese situation is characterized &#8220;precisely by the growing inadequacy of the traditional political apparatus and the absence of a bourgeois party with a mass base sufficiently broad to allow it to exercise hegemony, say, in the manner of the Italian Christian Democracy or the English Conservative party.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Livio Maitan has not considered the fact that, in a revolutionary period, bourgeois parties never have sufficient support from the masses to exercise hegemony, precisely because it is a revolutionary period, in which the masses do not trust the bourgeoisie and fight against it. One of the symptoms of the progress of the revolutionary crisis in Italy is precisely the growing impossibility of the Christian Democrats continuing to exercise hegemony. The same will happen to the British Conservatives as soon as the British proletariat goes beyond the stage of episodical outbursts&#8212;of which the miners strike of 1974 was a notable example&#8212;to engage in more militant and generalized struggles. Both parties have been able to rule in normal periods, without generalized workers and popular struggles, but they will not be able to do so in a revolutionary stage. That is why the situation in Portugal is not defined, as our commentator affirms, merely by &#8220;a deep political crisis,&#8221; but by a violent social and economic crisis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Perhaps Comrade Maitan will reply that he never intended to mix up the Portuguese government with the &#8220;third world&#8221; military regimes and that he simply was trying to point out some formal similarities. If he does this, the explanation would be a weak one. For Marxists, the governmental forms always express a particular relation between the classes. A comparison between mere forms, abstracting them from their class content, has no validity or usefulness. We accept analogies when they help to point out more precisely the class definition of a phenomenon ; if they do not help in this, they are a journalistic exercise and carry the danger, at a minimum, of creating confusion.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. A Government of the Armed Forces or of a Popular Front ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Liberal thinkers and politicians have coined a superficial classification of bourgeois governments ; civilian and military. We Marxists, in contrast, define governments not according to the clothes their officials wear, but according to the function they fulfill in the relations between classes. Archbishop Makarios, even though he wears a robe, does not head a medieval ecclesiastical government, but one that is the product of the current imperialist stage and a struggle of a British colony for independence. Nevertheless, the uniforms of the Portuguese rulers are making it difficult for many comrades to perceive, behind them, the real relations that have been established between the classes and that have given rise to the present MFA government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It is sufficient to recall that, in its time, a similar difficulty gave rise to very peculiar definitions of the Peruvian military regime and of its ephemeral Bolivian emulators (Ovando and Torres) : The label &#8220;military reformism&#8221; was assigned to them, without taking into account the class relations. In this way, a vulgar journalistic description was adopted, which defined the phenomenon by its outer appearance : the uniforms worn by the rulers and the &#8220;reforms&#8221; (whether real or phony, important or significant, did not matter) they carried out.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The curious thing is that from looking so much at the uniforms of the Lusitanian rulers, a really very crucial fact has been overlooked : It is the first bourgeois government in Western Europe in the last twenty-seven years in which the Communist Party has participated. And it is doing it not alone but with the Socialist Party.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This participation of the workers parties (Socialist and Communist), and especially of Stalinism, in the Portuguese government, is the decisive feature of the MFA regime. Much more important than the epaulets of General Costa Gomes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The participation in the government of the two large workers parties is a consequence of the revolutionary upsurge, which has compelled the Portuguese bourgeoisie to accept a government shared with these organizations as the only way to paralyze and defeat the workers. A class-collaborationist government has thus been formed to help maintain the bourgeois regime in a very difficult moment. Very difficult among other things because the crisis of its armed forces makes it unable to do so through the use of force. The collaboration became necessary from the moment when, without the support of the workers or their pacification, the bourgeois government could not stay in power one minute ; such was the magnitude of the revolutionary upsurge.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;If we leave aside the uniforms, the current Portuguese government is a typical popular-front government, a bloc between the bourgeois government and the workers parties. The Torres government in Bolivia was military and popular-frontist, one of collaboration and participation of the leadership recognized by the workers movement. That of Kerensky and of the Kuomintang were also governments of class collaboration, popular-frontist, even though they were not parliamentary either.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In this respect, then, there can be no doubt : The government of Costa Gomes, the armed forces, and the reformist parties is a typical class-collaborationist government in a revolutionary period. If there is anything new it is that it is a doubly popular-frontist government, because having to confront not only the revolutionary upsurge of the workers movement but also the revolutionary mobilization of the colonial masses, it collaborates or conciliates also with these colonial masses to save the empire. The convergence of the colonial and workers revolutions has given rise to a twice collaborationist government, a double popular-front. This really is a genuine novelty with regard to the relationship between the revolutionary classes and movements and their exploiters ; although there is the precedent of the Kerenskyist demagogy toward the nationalities oppressed by the great Russian imperialism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The form, technique, and mechanisms through which this collaboration between the representatives of the imperialist bourgeoisie and the petty-bourgeois leaderships of the workers and colonial movements takes place are important. But they are not determinant ; they do not modify this definition of the current Portuguese regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For the representatives of the bourgeoisie and of the working class to collaborate, a hinge is necessary, and intermediary. In the case of Portugal, that intermediary is the MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;VI. A Classical Kerenskyist Government&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1. The Different Types of imperialist Governments&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Whether we accept or do not accept the preceding definitions by Horowitz and Maitan of the MFA government, we must emphasize the importance of their attempt. The authors we have cited have hit the right spot : To define the stage of the class struggle and its probable dynamics is a prerequisite for formulating a correct revolutionary policy, but it is not enough. It is necessary to define the character of the regime and government the masses have to confront.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Revolutionists will not follow the same policies with different types of governments. There is a policy for a pre-revolutionary situation under a bourgeois-democratic, parliamentary regime and government, as in the cases of France, Belgium, and Spain in the 1930s. There is another policy for a pre-revolutionary situation (or one close to it) under a post-fascist Bonapartist government, as in Spain today. During the revolutionary situation that opened in 1905, the Bolsheviks advanced slogans (Down with the Tsar ! Republic !) that resulted from their having to confront a semi-feudal regime. In a similar situation in Germany in 1919, there was no reason at all to advance these slogans, since the communists had to confront a republic and not a semi-feudal monarch.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In responding to this necessity, comrades in the metropolitan countries run into an obstacle : the theoretical inertia caused by reality. During the last 30 years, Western Europe has lived under the same bourgeois-democratic regime (200 years in the case of the United States). The European reality has not compelled our movement to face other types of bourgeois governments, with the exception of Portugal and Spain (which could easily be considered as &#8220;fossils&#8221; inherited from a previous period), and for some years, Greece. We should note, in passing, that these are &#8220;peripheral&#8221; countries in the European theater. This long period of political monotony caused our movement to lose its theoretical reflexes in reacting to new phenomena like the present Portuguese regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;That is, new in relation to the period Western Europe has just completed, but not new for revolutionary Marxists, who already had occasion to study similar regimes during the almost three decades from 1917 to 1945. At that time, regimes and governments that were not bourgeois-democratic proliferated in Western Europe. Thus we have only to resort to the theoretical arsenal inherited from our teachers to find definitions fundamental for our attempts to characterize the MFA government and the future regimes that will make their appearance on the European continent as the revolution continues to advance.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Starting from the chronic crisis of imperialism (which has not led to a revolutionary outcome because of the betrayal of the Social Democracy and Stalinism), Trotsky studied and defined four types of imperialist governments and regimes : fascist, Bonapartist, bourgeois-democratic, and Kerenskyist. For the countries dominated by imperialism, he defined a particular kind of Bonapartism : &#8220;sui generis&#8221; Bonapartism, which we have already dealt with. And, in its time, he advanced the definition of Bonapartist for Stalin's government, although with an essentially different social base : It was the organ of a workers state.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. Bourgeois Democracy and Fascism&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the last century, Engels noted the trend of bourgeois regimes toward Bonapartism, toward leaving the government in the hands of the bureaucracy and the military apparatus. It is true that this trend was and continues to be a constant. Nevertheless, the bourgeois-democratic type of regime flourished and spread in the imperialist countries up until the First World War.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the typical democratic regime, the problems of the bourgeoisie are settled through electoral competition between the different sectors that seek support among the middle class and the workers. Beyond their electoral character, these bourgeois-democratic regimes base themselves on an agreement with the middle class to maintain a democratic-electoral mechanism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The colossal development of capitalism and imperialism in the past century and the first years of the present one was the necessary precondition for the flourishing of bourgeois-democratic regimes in the imperialist countries, as it made possible a certain improvement in the situation of the workers. Thus assurance was provided that granting the people the right to vote would not turn against the bourgeoisie, since the workers would vote for the bourgeois or reformist parties. In that period, and in consequence of these conditions, the reformist ideology arose that equates capitalism with democracy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Since the end of the Second World War, a similar phenomenon took place in the imperialist countries (and a similar ideology arose) in consequence of the spectacular boom of the capitalist economy in the last twenty-five years.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But in the period between the two world wars, the capitalist economy, far from a boom, experienced a deep and prolonged crisis. We only need to recall the great world crisis of 1929-32 and the one that Germany and the countries of central Europe underwent for entire years.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning with 1914, the imperialist world began to suffer a social and economic crisis. As the situation of capitalism became more and more critical, the bourgeois-democratic regime burned out its electoral fuses. It was no longer possible for it to assure the middle class and the labor aristocracy their privileges. The disputes between the different wings of the bourgeoisie sharpened. The different classes no longer accepted waiting for elections and demanded immediate solutions. If in Russia bourgeois-democracy (after a short life of a few months) was replaced by the dictatorship of the proletariat, in Italy it gave way to a new type of bourgeois government : fascism. The &#8220;eternal&#8221; democratic regime of &#8220;eternal&#8221; capitalism thus revealed its true transitional character, of a period in the life of capitalism. Its real role, that of a station house on the line leading to two opposite terminals : fascism or communism, was exposed.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It was Trotsky who made a precise analysis of the new fascist phenomenon. Faced with an economic crisis and the danger of a workers revolution, finance capital saw itself compelled to mobilize the petty-bourgeoisie and the declassed layers to crush the working class and its organizations with the methods of civil war and to install a totalitarian state, which not only suppressed workers democracy, but also all democratic rights.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. Imperialist Bonapartism&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But fascism is only a last resort, costly and full of risks. The bourgeoisie does not always find itself compelled to mobilize the petty-bourgeoisie. In many cases, it could count on a less convulsive instrument : The reformist workers parties guaranteed its survival. This allowed the bourgeoisie on occasions to limit or directly suppress a democratic regime without resorting to fascism (many times, as anticipatory steps in the march toward such a regime). This intermediate regime, born out of the advances of the bourgeois counterrevolution and defeats of the masses, based itself on the bureaucracy and fundamentally on the armed forces, which is what gives it a Bonapartist character.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Trotsky was meticulous in his study of these regimes, typical of Europe in the 1920s and the 1930s. &#8220;The decline of capitalist society places Bonapartism&#8212;side by side with fascism and coupled with it &#8212; again on the order of the day.&#8221; (Leon Trotsky, The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany, [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1971] p.329.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;And pointing to the relationship between these distinct forms of bourgeois rule, he said : between parliamentary democracy and the fascist regime [there is] a series of transitional forms ...&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; On the basis of the German experience, the Bolshevik-Leninists recorded for the first time the transitional governmental form ... which we called Bonapartism (Ibid., p.438.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; These governmental forms are an indirect result of the advance of the fascists :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The determinism of this transitional form has become patent, naturally not in the fatalistic but in the dialectical sense, that is, for the countries and periods where fascism, with growing success, without encountering a victorious resistance of the proletariat, attacked the positions of parliamentary democracy in order thereupon to strangle the proletariat. (Ibid., p.438.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;And Trotsky again emphasizes that Bonapartism bases itself on the retreat of the masses and in the victories of the counterrevolution, not on the proximity of the revolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8220;Without this basic condition, that is, without a preceding exhaustion of the mass energies in battles, the Bonapartist regime is in no position to develop.&#8221; (Ibid., p. 278.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;These regimes, precisely because of their character of intermediate stations on the passageway from parliamentary democracy to fascism, were less stable than post-fascist Bonapartism. The later arises when fascism in power gets rid of (sometimes, with the same civil-war methods that it used previously against the proletariat) its petty-bourgeois wing and begins to rule on the basis of the military police apparatus.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Trotsky thus distinguished three types of &#8220;normal&#8221; bourgeois regimes in this epoch of crisis : parliamentary democracy, pre-fascist and post-fascist Bonapartism, and fascism. In saying &#8220;normal&#8221; we refer to the fact that we are dealing with regimes in which the stability of the bourgeoisie is guaranteed.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;4. Kerenskyism&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But what happened in the opposite case, when the movement of the workers and the masses was advancing toward a socialist revolution ? Trotsky recognized in those cases a new type of regime and government : Kerenskyist or popular-frontist. It is an extremely unstable form, sunk in a chronic crisis, of very limited duration, constituting the last or next to the last type of bourgeois government before a workers revolution or a turn backwards toward fascism, Bonapartism, or bourgeois democracy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&#8220;The regime existing in Spain today,&#8221; said Trotsky in November 1931 in relation to the liberal-socialist government, &#8220;corresponds best to the conception of a Kerensky, that is, the last (or next-to-last) &#8216;left' government, which the bourgeoisie can only set up in its struggle against the revolution.&#8221; (Leon Trotsky, The Spanish Revolution&#8212;1931-39, [New York : Pathfinder Press, Inc., 1973], p.169.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;And in face of the criticisms made of this concept : (&#8220;You say that the present regime in Spain can be compared to &#8216;Kerenskyism' ... I do not think so. &#8216;Kerenskyism' was the bourgeoisie's last card. It was the announcement for October. Azana announces Lerroux, that is, Miliukov, the big bourgeoisie.&#8221;) (Ibid., p.380), Trotsky responds by criticizing the mechanical conception of Nin, who believed that Kerenskyism would inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution, pointing out that to the contrary the possibility was great that it would move backwards toward more reactionary bourgeois regimes. Here is the quote : &#8220;Everything depends on the manner in which &#8216;Kerenskyism' is seen : as the last bourgeois government after which the bourgeoisie must perish, or as the last left government, the furthest left which the bourgeoisie can advance in the struggle for its regime, and which must enable the bourgeoisie to save itself (and hardly perish) or yield its place to a fascist government.&#8221; (Ibid., p.397.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In a Kerenskyist regime, the bourgeois counterrevolution, unable to crush the workers revolution but still able to prevent its victory, sees itself compelled to conciliate with the workers movement to stop its advance. Let me stress an example : If we take bourgeois democracy as the midway station of a railway line, if we move toward the right we pass by the station of Bonapartism ; the end of the line is fascism. But, if we go in the opposite direction, we will pass by the station of Kerenskyism, and crossing the class frontier, we will arrive at the other end of the line, a workers state.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Kerenskyism is a combination of a workers revolution and bourgeois counterrevolution. But a combination in which the dynamic and decisive element continues to be a workers revolution on the rise. This is exactly opposite to a Bonapartist regime, in which the dynamic factor is the bourgeois counterrevolution, and the workers movement is on the defensive.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We are amazed at the resistance of the majority of contemporary Marxists to accepting this definition, which we have recently applied to the governments of Torres in Bolivia and Allende in Chile. A resistance which is all the more serious, since the present crisis of capitalism makes inevitable the emergence of governments of this type. Above all, our attention is called to the fact that the comrades of the Militant , who very correctly compare the Russian and Portuguese revolutions, do not notice the similarity between the governments produced by both of those processes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It is possible that the confusion originates in the fact that Kerenskyist governments just like parliamentary ones) tend to move toward Bonapartism. Another fact that can create confusion is that both Bonapartism as well as Kerenskyism are characteristic of periods of capitalist crisis, in opposition to parliamentary democratic governments.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5. Kerenskyism and Bonapartism&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But the big difference between these two regimes lies in the form in which the bourgeoisie goes about solving the crisis. When it bases itself directly on the armed forces without resorting to conciliation with the movement of the workers and the masses, when it attempts to overcome a crisis with a government of the &#8220;right&#8221;, of &#8220;law and order,&#8221; and of &#8220;strength,&#8221; with an &#8220;incontestable arbiter,&#8221; we are facing a typical Bonapartist government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;When it tries to &#8220;conciliate,&#8221; to obtain the &#8220;collaboration of the working class through its representatives&#8221; to install a &#8220;left&#8221; or &#8220;socialist&#8221; government, we face a class collaborationist, a Kerenskyist, government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We could summarize by saying that the difference between a Bonapartist and Kerenskyist government is the same as that between a judge or arbiter, who hands down his sentences with the weight of disciplined armed forces behind him, and a conciliator, who does not have reliable armed forces with which to impose his decisions or &#8220;advice.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Logically, this conciliator or intermediary between the contending classes tries with all his might to attain the power that would give his decisions a compulsory and incontestable character. But, as long as he does not succeed (and to succeed he must defeat the working class), he will continue to be Kerenskyist and not Bonapartist.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This combination of traits of one type of regime and another is not unusual. On the contrary, it is the rule in reality, where pure types are a rare exception. Thus, we have Bonapartisms and Kerenskyisms with parliamentary forms, parliamentary-democratic regimes with strong Bonapartist tendencies, etc.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the case of Kerenskyism, its unstable character requires it to try to become Bonapartist, in order to reestablish the lost bourgeois social equilibrium. Trotsky, in narrating the history of the Russian revolution, points to this trait in the Kerensky government. He speaks of &#8220;elements of Bonapartism&#8221; in defining Kerensky and Kornilov. This is how we must understand the references that Lenin and Trotsky himself made to the &#8220;Bonapartist&#8221; character of Kerensky, in the midst of the struggle against him. In the History of the Russian Revolution, but also in other works of his, Trotsky makes this very clear :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The misfortune of the Russian candidates for Bonaparte lay not at all in their dissimilarity to the first Napoleon, or even to Bismarck. History knows how to make use of substitutes. But they were confronted by a great revolution which had not yet solved its problems or exhausted its force. [...] The revolution was still full-blooded. No wonder Bonapartism prove anemic. (Op.cit., Vol.2, pp. 155-56.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There is no one better than the class enemy at summarizing the difference between a Kerensky with Bonapartist tendencies and the directly Bonapartist Kornilov. Trotsky quotes one of the big Russian industrialists complaining about the Kerenskyist government : &#8220;They would summon representatives of the workers to Petrograd and in the Marble Palace scold them and try to persuade and reconcile them with the industrialists and engineers.&#8221; (Ibid., Vol.2, p.267.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This big capitalist was anxious to have the &#8220;conciliator&#8221; government replaced by another one (Bonapartist) which, as supreme arbiter, would give orders and have the rebellious Russian workers comply with them.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As Trotsky narrates, according to the testimony of Miliukov, the most important Russian bourgeois politician, &#8220;this installing of a strong man ... [Kornilov] was &#8216;thought of in different terms from those of negotiation and compromise.'&#8221; The same was said by another commentator to explain the support of Kornilov by the Kadet party : &#8220;Hopes of democracy, of the will of the people, of the Constituent Assembly [...] were already thrown overboard. The municipal elections throughout all Russia had given an overwhelming majority to the socialists ... and there were beginning to be convulsive reachings out for a power which should not persuade [like that of Kerensky, we add] but only command.&#8221; (Ibid., Vol.2, p.142. Emphasis added.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There can be no doubt about it : For Trotskyism, a conciliatory regime is different from that of an arbiter. The first is Kerenskyism ; the other, Bonapartism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6. A Government of the &#8216;Left,' a Class-Collaborationist, Popular-Frontist, or Kerenskyist Government Are All the Same&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Originally, Kerenskyism got its name from A. Kerensky, who governed Russia in the last months of the bourgeois regime before the October revolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Later, Trotsky used the term to refer to all those class-collaborationist governments in which the reformist parties of the workers movement participated. In this way, the definition of Kerenskyism covered not only those left coalition governments of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat during revolutionary periods, but also those that arose during pre-revolutionary situations, as in the case of the French Popular Front government in 1936 and several similar cases in other countries in the 1920s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; An epoch of Kerenskyism is clearly approaching in your country [France] ; the regime of the Radical-socialist Bloc is the first confused rebound from the war epoch. (The First 5 Years of the Communist International , Vol.1, 2nd ed. [New York : Monad Press, 1972] p.163.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; But the most likely candidate at the present time is Herriot who is preparing the background and the conditions for a new policy, for French Kerenskyism, because the assumption of power by the &#8216;Left Bloc' signifies a government of Radicals and Socialists, who will undoubtedly enter the Bloc. (Ibid., Vol.2, p.212.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The appearance of the working class in power will place the entire responsibility for the government's actions upon the Labor Party ; and will give rise to an epoch of English Kerenskyism in the era of parliamentarism ... (Ibid., Vol.2, p.211.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; But there are too many indications that the bourgeoisie will be driven to resort to a reformist and pacifist orientation, before the proletariat feels itself prepared for the decisive assault. This would signify an epoch of European Kerenskyism. (Ibid., Vol.2, p.262)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; ... in Spain Kerenskyism-the coalition of the liberals and the &#8216;socialists' ... (Writings of Leon Trotsky-1930-31 , op. cit., p.355.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As we can see, Trotsky includes within the category of Kerenskyism all &#8220;left&#8221; governments in which workers parties participate : from the &#8220;leftist&#8221; project in France in 1922, to the liberal-socialist coalition of Spain in 1931, including the probable Labour government in England in a pre-revolutionary period. A demagogic-leftist orientation (&#8220;reformist and pacifist&#8221;) of the European bourgeoisie leads him to predict a period of Kerenskyism on a continental scale.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;He defines in this way a Kerenskyism we could call &#8220;not classic,&#8221; since, in distinction from the Kerensky regime, it does not arise in a revolutionary stage and in a situation of dual power, but in a pre-revolutionary one ; and it is not put into power directly by the mass movement, but indirectly, through electoral and parliamentary means.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Later, after seeing and studying the popular-front governments of Blum, Largo Caballero, and Negdn, Trotsky went the other way : He extended the name of &#8220;popular front&#8221; to Kerensky's government, thus indicating that they were synonymous.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; From February to October, the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries, who represent a very good parallel to the &#8216;Communists' and the Social Democrats, were in the closest alliance and in a permanent coalition with the bourgeois party of the Cadets, together with whom they formed a series of coalition governments. Under the sign of this Popular Front (The Spanish Revolution , op. cit., p.220.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; For it is often forgotten that the greatest historical example of the Popular Front is the February 1917 revolution. (Ibid., p.220.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;1. A Classical Kerenskylst Government&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Let us use Trotsky's method to define the MFA government, by observing its relationship to the revolution and the counterrevolution. Is this government the product of counterrevolutionary victories or advances, or contrariwise, of great revolutionary victories of the masses ? Is it a consequence of the latter having &#8220;exhausted their energies in battles&#8221; or on the contrary, of their having won these battles, against fascism and then two times against Sp&#237;nola ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The MFA government is the result of transitional stages that are opposite to those that give rise to Bonapartist governments. It is the result of the fall of the post-fascist Bonapartist government and of the rising curve of a workers revolution ; it reflects the transitional stages in the advance of that revolution and the successive ways in which the bourgeoisie, the modern middle class, and the reformist parties that act as representatives of the proletariat accommodate to that advance in order to block it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Horowitz himself helps demolish the definition of Bonapartist with his description of the situation of the mass movement. Again and again, he points to the occurrence of big strikes, demonstrations, factory occupations, etc. In the reaction's latest coup attempt on March 11, the masses won, the coup was defeated, and the oligarchy received a hard blow with the nationalization of the banks and the insurance companies. Since the fall of the fascist regime, workers have made gain after gain. Horowitz admits this in his article when he poses the need to &#8220;defend the gains the workers have made.&#8221; Everything fits : Mobilizations are on a rising curve. We are very far, then, from the &#8220;basic condition&#8221; that Trotsky indicated as decisive for a Bonapartist regime to develop : that the energies of the masses &#8220;have been exhausted.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As has been said, we do not deny that the MFA has Bonapartist traits, that it tends toward Bonapartism. But the predominant trend since the fall of fascism and the appearance of the government of the MFA has been the opposite : more and more advances and gains of the masses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Bonapartist traits oppose this tendency ; this is the main danger confronting the Portuguese mass movement today. But a danger is precisely that : a probable evil ; not a present evil. The danger could become a reality only after a defeat of the masses, or after they have worn out their forces on partial and disorganized struggles, or after battles that were necessary but not engaged in. Again we see that Horowitz empties a political formula of its class content and applies it to a regime that can only base itself on victories of the counterrevolution, whereas the situation is that the workers movement has been winning positions and acquiring a more and more favorable relationship of forces with respect to the bourgeoisie.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The definition of the Portuguese government as Bonapartist has another serious shortcoming. The emergence of a Bonapartist (or democratic, or fascist, or Kerenskyist) regime can only take place in the midst of commotion, since it implies moving from one stage of class struggle to another. That is why Trotsky says : &#8220;the passage from one system to another signifies the political crisis.&#8221; (The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany, op. cit., p.440. Trotsky's emphasis.) Thus the comrades who maintain that the MFA is a Bonapartist government must define precisely what political crisis opened the Bonapartist stage. Caetano's fall ? Sp&#237;nola's fall ? The defeat of the Sp&#237;nolist putsch in March ? These three political crises constituted victories of the revolution, not of the reaction. On the other hand, Caetano's regime was post-fascist Bonapartist, and Sp&#237;nola was a candidate for the role of Bonaparte. Does the MFA mean only a changing of the guard in a Bonapartist regime that is but the continuation of those of Caetano and Sp&#237;nola ? In that case, the defenders of this thesis should, to be consistent, state that nothing has changed politically in Portugal since April 25, 1974 (except, perhaps, the &#8220;strength&#8221; of Bonapartism, which would now be weaker).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There is, on the other hand, a definition that fits the characteristics of the MFA regime perfectly. Except for the fact that, up to now, it has not produced a Kerensky, the Portuguese government has all the traits of Kerenskyism or a popular-front government. It is a typical class-collaborationist government, weak, unstable, which covers up its bourgeois character with leftist rhetoric and a profuse demagogy around measures (undoubtedly progressive) that it has found itself compelled to carry out : nationalization of the banks and monopolistic companies. Finally it is structured as a popular-front government, in which a bourgeois party participates with the opportunist and reformist parties of the workers movement (the SP and CP) and a politico-military organization that establishes the relationship between the former and the latter.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Because of the fact that it is not the product of a parliamentary combination, but of an advancing workers revolution, and because it finds itself in a situation containing important seeds of dual power, the Kerenskyist government of the MFA is very similar to that of Kerensky himself.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The adoption of this definition and the rejection of the Bonapartist definition do not alter the principled position that we as revolutionary Marxists must take toward this government. It has not ceased to be a bourgeois government, and thus we must not place the least bit of confidence in it, we must not give it any political support, and we must not participate in it under any circumstance. It is our class enemy and our aim must be to defeat it by means of the workers revolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But it is of decisive importance in determining the policies that revolutionary Marxists must follow toward it. Let us recall the example of the railway line with two terminals (fascism and a workers state) : If the government is Bonapartist, the country is moving to the right, and thus it is urgent to put the brakes on this trend and try to reverse it. If it is Kerenskyist, we must step on the accelerator to speed the march toward the socialist revolution and free ourselves from the counterrevolutionary government (which does not mean that we will move at the same speed at all times, but we will have to make adjustments according to the circumstances with which we are faced during the journey).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Another trait of Bonapartism is that, being a reactionary government in almost pure form, which does not base itself on any popular sector, it reveals itself as an almost direct government of finance capital. That is, in the case of Portugal, a government of the seven families. This would have undoubtedly been true in the event of a victory by Sp&#237;nola. But, of course, that is not so in the case of the MFA government, which has partially expropriated the financial oligarchy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bonapartism is also a government of law and order, par excellence. And it is so, precisely because it bases itself not on parliament, but on the bureaucracy, the police, and the army. But, to be able to base itself on them, it needs a solid, disciplined police and army, ready to carry out the repressive orders of the regime. In Portugal, we have exactly the opposite. The former political police is practically dismantled. An openly deliberative atmosphere predominates in the army. The very existence of the MFA (a public political faction) contributes objectively to divide it. In some units, the soldiers are removing their commanders and they control the appointment of their replacements. In others, assemblies take place in which officers, noncommissioned officers, and soldiers participate on an equal footing. There have been cases of troops refusing to repress demonstrations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Under such conditions, Bonapartism is not possible. And the crisis and disintegration of the army deepens day by day. The only way a Bonapartist regime might be established is through the previous restoration of military discipline. This is the aim of the Bonapartist tendencies within the MFA ; the soldiers and the mass movement are marching in the opposite direction. Once more : Until the Bonapartist tendencies defeat the mass movement, there can be no Bonapartism in Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We do not think it is necessary to go on. The definition of the Portuguese government as Bonapartist does not withstand the least analysis. There is no doubt about it, it is a Kerenskyist government with elements of dual power, that is, a classical Kerenskyist government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Armed Forces Movement&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1. Institutionalized Kerenskyism&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;All Kerenskyist or popular-frontist regimes are made up of three elements : on one hand, the bourgeoisie ; on the other, the petty-bourgeois or bureaucratic representatives of the workers movement ; and in the middle, the mediator or conciliator.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This is the role that Kerensky played in the Russian revolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; Half Kadet and half Social Revolutionary, Kerensky was not a representative of the soviets in the government, like Tseretelli or Chernov, but a living tie between the bourgeoisie and the democracy. Tseretelli and Chernov formed one side of the Coalition. Kerensky was a personal incarnation of the Coalition itself. (History of the Russian Revolution, op. cit., Vol.2, p.139.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It is true that there is no Kerensky in the Portuguese government. It lacks this personal trait that Kerenskyism shares with Bonapartism. This circumstance does not stand in the way of the preciseness of the definition that we have formulated. When the Trotskyists defined the Hindenburg government as Bonapartist, the objection was raised that this old marshal was the very negation of Napoleon, psychologically as well as socially. Trotsky quickly disposed of the question : He made it clear that the definition did not refer to the individual, but to the sociopolitical role that he played. Hindenburg's Bonapartism was an institution, not an individual. Going beyond his personal characteristics, he was a symbol of the historic role played by Bonapartism in Germany.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We can apply the same criterion to the government of the MFA. Kerensky arose from the great petty-bourgeois Russian party, the Social Revolutionary party ; but, at the same time, it had always been tied to the liberal bourgeoisie. And it was only from this party that a&#8220;conciliator&#8221; could emerge able to mediate between the bourgeois counterrevolution and the proletarian revolution. Almost fifty years of apoliticalness in Portugal prevented the rise and consolidation of a petty-bourgeois party (and within it, figures closely linked to the bourgeoisie) : This is the vacuum that the MFA fills, willy-nilly. And in this way makes up for the nonexistent conciliator.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The parallel between Kerensky and the MFA is note worthy. The discussion of Bonapartism in the preceding pages could have taken place, in almost identical terms, in 1917. Trotsky points out the strong Bonapartist tendencies of Kerensky, tendencies that cannot be imposed owing to the victorious rise of the mass movement, which culminates in the taking of power. And, precisely because of this, because the Bonapartist tendencies are not able to impose themselves, the government is not Bonapartist, but another type of government : Kerenskyist, as we have already mentioned.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Another trait Kerensky and the MFA have in common is the lack of sympathy and confidence the respective bourgeoisies feel for their &#8220;saviors&#8221; : &#8220;Their understanding that the r&#233;gime of Kerensky was the inevitable form of bourgeois rulership for the given period, did not prevent the bourgeois politicians from being extremely dissatisfied with Kerensky, nor from preparing to get rid of him as quickly as possible. There was no disagreement among the possessing classes that the national arbiter put forward by the petty bourgeois democracy must be opposed by a figure from their own ranks.&#8221; (Ibid., Vol.2, p.157.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It is the decline of the workers and mass movement that elevates and keeps the Bonapartist government in power. The exact opposite occurs with Kerenskyism&#8212;each advance of the workers and mass movement elevates it more and more :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; The dialectic of the compromise r&#233;gime, and its malicious irony, lie in the fact that the masses had to lift Kerensky to the very highest height before they could topple him over. (Ibid., Vol.2, p.140.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This is exactly what is occurring with the MFA. After the fall of Caetano, it obtained only a few secondary ministries in the first provisional government. In a short time, the colonial movement and the mass struggles in Portugal confronted Sp&#237;nola because of the delay in granting independence to the colonies and in calling a Constituent Assembly, causing the fall of the prime minister Palma Carlos. The MFA then imposed one of its men (Col. Vasco Goncalves) as prime minister. When the mass mobilizations caused the fall of Sp&#237;nola, the MFA was able to gain total control of the cabinet. The defeat of the March 11 &#8220;putsch&#8221; enabled the MFA to get the big workers parties and the most important bourgeois party to sign the &#8220;Pact-Program,&#8221; which recognized the right of the MFA to control the government for a period of three to five years. It is along these same lines that Trotsky says, &#8220;The July government of Kerensky had been endowed with unlimited powers.&#8221; (Ibid., Vol.2, p.153.) But as in the case of Kerensky, this elevation above the classes and the different parties has little practical value, since the MFA does not have the power necessary to impose its decisions. Trotsky says that &#8220;without Kerensky compromisism would have been like a church steeple without a cross.&#8221; (Ibid., Vol.2, p.140.) The MFA also crowns the building of the impossible conciliation of classes in the midst of the revolutionary storm.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Finally, let's take a look at another trait that the MFA has in common with Kerensky : his disorganizing, anarchist role. Everything it wants to put in order it puts in disorder, everything it wants to construct, it destroys. This is just the opposite to Bonapartism, the regime of law and order par excellence although everyone (except the revolutionists) would like to see the MFA achieve this goal. In spite of this desire shared by all of the bourgeoisie, the petty-bourgeoisie, and the reformist working-class parties, and the efforts they make along these lines, their objective is far beyond their reach. Order can only be the product of the triumph of the workers revolution or the bourgeois counterrevolution, and Kerenskyism is an intermediary between these two gigantic forces, and at the same time, their prisoner.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. Political and Class Character&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;When the Militant draws its analogy between the Russian and Portuguese revolutions, it forgets that in the former the Social Revolutionary party and Kerensky existed, representing the petty bourgeoisie and fulfilling the role of intermediaries between the masses and the imperialist bourgeoisie. What parties and organisms in Portugal reflect the petty bourgeoisie, mainly the modern middle class, the way the Russian Social Revolutionaries did ? Or is the Portuguese revolution the first in which the petty bourgeoisie has no representation ? And is the present government a class-collaborationist government without an intermediary or conciliator like Kerensky ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;If we observe the Portuguese political panorama, we find that the bourgeoisie as well as the working class are clearly represented. The bourgeoisie, in its various wings, by the reactionary officers, Sp&#237;nola, Costa Gomes, and the bourgeois political parties. The working class has two petty-bourgeois, or bureaucratic, representatives : Socialism and Stalinism. On the other hand, the petty bourgeoisie apparently has no specific organization that represents it. This is no accident : All the Portuguese parties are, in a certain sense, new because fifty years of fascism gave them no opportunity to test their cadres and leaderships. This is doubly so in the camp of the &#8220;people.&#8221; The CP and the SP based their ideology and apparatus on external factors : first, Moscow and European Stalinism ; second, the European Social Democracy. It is not in vain that they are representatives of an international class&#8212;and of its deformations. But the Portuguese petty bourgeoisie is not an international class. And its petty-bourgeois representatives are&#8212;they are obliged to be&#8212;the most genuine, most backward national product, with no ties to international apparatuses. These, too, were the characteristics of the Russian Social Revolutionaries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It seems to us that the Portuguese petty bourgeoisie, for lack of historical time, had to improvise its political representation, dividing it among various organizations, not specifically. This division of its representation fell to the Socialist Party and to a lesser degree to parties in the orbit of Stalinism. This vacuum forced a specific political organization to be improvised within the army, fundamentally to represent the modern middle class, the MFA. In Russia, the &#8220;progressive&#8221; low-ranking officers joined or responded to a big petty-bourgeois party, the Social Revolutionaries, organizing themselves in the army in cells or branches of this party. In Portugal, the absence of such a big party of the middle class fragmented the representation of that class into two or three political sectors, but obliged it to organize itself in a united form within the army.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In view of the fact that the Portuguese government is supported on two bases : the officers and structure of some armed forces in crisis, and the agreement and support of the reformist parties, a division of tasks has developed between these forces and the MFA. It is the same division that occurred in Russia between the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries on the one hand, and Kerensky on the other. The Portuguese reformist parties placate the masses and try to demobilize them, as did the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries in Russia. The MFA-Kerensky acts as a conciliator-bridge between them and the political and bourgeois-military organs (parties, high commands and officer corps).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The MFA plays this role because of the lack of &#8220;traditional&#8221; political personalities or organisms that could do it and because of the peculiar characteristics of the Portuguese &#8220;February.&#8221; It is no accident that Kerensky came from the right wing of the Social Revolutionaries, practically from the border between them and the liberal bourgeoisie. He was the man whose political practice formed a bridge between the revolutionary masses&#8212;represented in their time by the various nuances within their party&#8212;and the liberal bourgeois Kadets. But in Portugal fascism brought about a &#8220;February&#8221; without the existence of big historic parties representing the different classes. This is one of the reasons why April 25, the Portuguese February, did not find its expression through the Portuguese &#8220;Social Revolutionaries&#8221; and &#8220;Kadets,&#8221; but through its military substitutes. If the April 25 &#8220;putsch&#8221; was basically military, its personalities and organisms should likewise be military. And, if the lower-ranking officers who organized the MFA played the role of the Social Revolutionaries and Sp&#237;nola that of the Kadets, Vasco Goncalves, along with the MFA itself, replaced Kerensky. It is no accident that Vasco Goncalves is a lieutenant colonel, and not a member of the lower officer class. His function as a bridge between it and the generals, his location on the border, the limit, between one and the other placed him in a position that could not be improved on to play the role of intermediary. And as intermediary in the sector in which the crisis broke out, the armed forces, just like Kerensky in the broadest framework of the relationship between the parties of the Russian revolution when the social crisis broke out. From there to rising to the position of a Kerensky among the Portuguese parties, classes, and military factions as a whole, required only a single step. A step that was taken by the MFA and its leader Vasco Goncalves. As a result of this role as intermediary, the MFA itself became an echo chamber for its speakers, thus becoming polarized in different tendencies and living from crisis to crisis as a result of these antagonisms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This class character and function is the only coherent explanation of the history, ideology, and politics of the MFA. The other definition, upheld by many comrades, that the MFA is the direct organ or representative of the imperialist bourgeoisie, is wrecked by insoluble contradictions. How do you explain the frictions and struggle between Sp&#237;nola, who gathered around him the bourgeoisie after the April 25 coup, and the MFA, which represented that same bourgeoisie ? Are there two wings of the same bourgeoisie that confront each other in attempts at civil war, that hit at each other with &#8220;putschs,&#8221; that battle each other, that persecute each other, and, while one flees the country, the other &#8220;carries on demagogy&#8221; ? It all looks like a game of chess played by a single person : the imperialist bourgeoisie. But these insoluble contradictions are resolved (and the character of the MFA, its history of oscillations between the bourgeoisie and the revolution, with clashes in both directions, becomes crystal clear as soon as we consider it as the political representation of the modern middle class within the army, elevated so as to have to play the role of conciliator between the ongoing workers and colonial revolution and the Portuguese bourgeoisie and its political and military representatives.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This class definition does not in the least mean that we place any confidence whatsoever in the MFA. On the contrary, the analogy with Kerensky is all the more useful. Like him, the MFA is the representative of the imperialist middle class, which has thrived upon and will continue to thrive upon the exploitation of the colonies, just as the Russian Social Revolutionaries wanted to continue the predatory war of Russian imperialism &#8220;up until the final victory.&#8221; They have likewise thrived upon and want to continue to thrive upon the exploitation of the working class ; they are, thus, doubly reactionary.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The contradictions shaking the MFA simply express the contradictory character of the class it represents : With its plebeian, &#8220;socializing&#8221; methods, it is the most formidable tool that the Portuguese imperialist bourgeoisie has now. If it fulfills such an outstanding role in the bourgeois strategy, this is owing to the extreme weakness of the bourgeoisie and of the empire it is defending. This weakness, which caused the crisis in the army, has left the imperialist middle class as the only obstacle facing the revolution, not only in Portugal, but also in the empire. The imperialist bourgeoisie will have no better instrument until it is able to discipline the army and develop a fascist movement.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. Two Dangerous Interpretations of the MFA and the Crisis of the Armed Forces&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Many are the interpretations that have been given of the MFA phenomena, some of them extremely dangerous.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There are those who maintain that it is &#8220;a new phenomenon.&#8221; It is true that the MFA, like any phenomenon, has something new about it, but it is very grave to assert that something is new simply to evade making a class analysis. It is precisely from the angle of the relationship between the classes that the MFA is not essentially new : It must be explained by the revolutionary impact and the dynamic of the three main classes of society within the armed forces. These comrades become confused in face of the real crisis and the dual power in the Portuguese armed forces, and they ascribe this situation to the MFA, when in reality, the MFA is the expression of the situation. Just as many &#8220;leftists&#8221; were in favor of a republican Spain and its government, or of the &#8220;February revolution in Russia&#8221; and its government, going onto ecstasies over the revolution as a whole, including dual power, some comrades do the same with the Portuguese revolution, placing an equal sign between the MFA and the gains of the masses. In this way they hide the clear and precise functions of the MFA : to be the conciliating agent of the imperialist counterrevolution. In the certain fact that without a workers revolution and dual power in the army there would be no MFA, they dissolve the equally certain fact that the MFA is the petty-bourgeois counter revolutionary instrument of the imperialist bourgeoisie to block the revolution inside and outside the army.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But there is an opposite interpretation, also incorrect and dangerous : the one given by those who state that the MFA and imperialism are one and the same, that is, that the MFA is the expression within the army of the Portuguese imperialist bourgeoisie. This definition has one merit : It is a class analysis. But it has one defect ; contrary and symmetrical to the former one : It also begins with the true fact that the MFA is part of the officer caste of a bourgeois and imperialist army and that its government is imperialist, but it dissolves this generality into the equally true fact that it is not the imperialist bourgeoisie but a petty-bourgeois agent and that it is part of a class collaborationist government in which it acts as an intermediary between its bosses and the workers and colonial movements.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Trotsky has pointed out repeatedly that the armed forces express in an extremely succinct form the character of the society in which they exist. Portugal does not escape this rule. The Sp&#237;nola wing of the army represented, without a doubt, the Portuguese bourgeoisie. Today, the reactionary officers who continue to be the majority and who &#8212; according to the Trotskyist soldier&#8212;are organized and distributing leaflets in the barracks ; continue to represent it. They will continue to exist and respond to the imperialist bourgeoisie. Another wing of the bourgeoisie has accepted collaboration with the MFA and the workers parties to halt the revolution. We believe that the person who best reflects this very weak wing, formed more by ideologists than by big bourgeois figures as such, a true &#8220;shadow of the bourgeoisie,&#8221; is Costa Gomes, Sp&#237;nola's friend. It is Costa Gomes himself who is in charge of establishing the connection between this sector and the MFA. Maybe there are some officers who respond to Costa Gomes. If this is so, we have not heard that they constitute an important sector nor that they are organized. They would be something like the &#8220;military shadow&#8221; of the &#8220;shadow of the bourgeoisie&#8221; represented by the present president of Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The MFA is distinct from the officers who are openly Sp&#237;nolists, reactionaries, and representatives of the bourgeoisie, and it is distinct from the Costa Gomes wing. Horowitz, in the article already referred to, recognizes this when he tells us : &#8220;Despite the MFA's policy differences with the dictatorship, and despite a vaguely populist or radical ideology on the part of some MFA officers, the MFA was not a genuinely independent formation. The officers of the MFA comprised one wing of the Portuguese imperialist army. They did not even have the goal of breaking completely with the reactionary senior officers.&#8221; (Emphasis added.) It is a good portrait or description, but it does not make a profound analysis. It does not say what class interests the different wings represent, including the MFA.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In our opinion, nothing can be understood if we do not begin from the fact that the MFA is a product and at the same time the detonator and accelerator of the crisis of the imperialist army defeated in a colonial war, that is, a manifestation of the class struggle. Starting from this point we can advance. Everyone agrees that it is an organization of the lower-ranking officers (with a few senior officers), and that there are three tendencies within it : the pro-Stalinists, the pro-Socialists, and the independent Socialists. Despite this, some insist that it is a mere agent or direct representative of the high command or of the imperialist bourgeoisie. But this definition does not explain, among other things, why they fight with the Sp&#237;nola wing, which also represents the imperialist bourgeoisie. We believe that Trotsky gives us the answer when he describes the impact of the Russian revolution on the army :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; ... the Petrograd garrison followed the workers. After the victory it found itself summoned to hold elections for the Soviet. The soldiers trustfully elected those who had been for the revolution against the monarchist officers, and who knew how to say this out loud : these were volunteers, clerks, assistant-surgeons, young war-time officers from the intelligentsia, petty military officials&#8212;that is, the lowest layers of that new middle caste. All of them almost to the last man inscribed themselves, beginning in March, in the party of the Social Revolutionaries, which with its intellectual formlessness perfectly expressed their intermediate social situation and their limited political outlook. (The History of the Russian Revolution, Vol.I, p.167. Emphasis in original.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For Trotsky, then, the entire lower officer class reflected &#8220;the lowest layers of that new middle caste ...,&#8221; and it inscribed itself in the petty-bourgeois party par excellence, the &#8220;Social Revolutionaries,&#8221; in which some high-ranking officers of the staff also inscribed themselves. We believe that this definition is adapted very well to the MFA phenomenon. It is an organ of the lower-ranking officers, composed of &#8220;petty military officials&#8221; and&#8212;in this respect the similarity is notable&#8212;by &#8220;young war-time officers.&#8221; The big difference, as we have already seen, lies in that, because of the absence of a big party of its class, they organized themselves in a faction within the army. But this &#8220;socializing&#8221; faction also corresponds through its &#8220;intellectual formlessness&#8221; to an &#8220;intermediate social situation&#8221; and the &#8220;limited political outlook&#8221; of those comprised in it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Those who insist on comparing the MFA to the high commands and the imperialist bourgeoisie do not carry this definition to its ultimate consequences : They should say that the MFA is similar to the Kadets of the Russian army during the revolution. But they do not dare go so far and chose instead a more ingenious comparison : They compare it with the republican officers in the Spanish civil war. Despite the fact that this case involved building a bourgeois army and in Portugal of reconstructing it, the comparison seems to us to be accurate. If it is meant to refer to the improvised officer structure of the militia, the comparison is correct. The officers of the Fifth Regiment, of the POUM, of the SP, made an effort to impose a military discipline that would enable them to reorganize a viable bourgeois army. Meanwhile, the parties to which they belonged were dedicated to halting the revolution outside of the army. But these officers could fulfill the function of convincing, organizing, disciplining the militia because they were Stalinists, Socialists, or POUMists ; that is, because they were not directly bourgeois officials, but the petty-bourgeois representatives of the working class.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;They represented popular frontism, class collaborationism in its pure form within the army. The officers belonging to the working-class parties disciplined the militia so they would submit to the military shadow of the Spanish bourgeoisie that had remained in the republican camp : Miaja and company. The MFA is playing the same role, except that as we have already seen, it shares this task with the reformist parties : The latter act on the mass movement, the former on the army.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But we do not believe that the comparison refers to the officers of the Spanish militia. Nobody can maintain that the POUMist, Socialist, and Stalinist officers were the same as the high command of the Spanish army or the Spanish bourgeoisie. Without doubt the reference is to the officers of the Spanish army who remained on the side of the republic. If this is so, the analogy is absolutely false. The republican officers were not politically organized nor were they part of an army in crisis. They were segregated from the Spanish army, which, under Franco's command and with no internal crisis, fought the republic. The republican officers were not a sociopolitical phenomenon, nor are their counterparts in Portugal, those who might agree with Costa Gomes. They were individual exceptions : the military shadow of the political shadow of the bourgeoisie that existed in the republican camp. The MFA, on the other hand, like the militia officers, is trying to reconstruct the bourgeois army to put it under discipline to the bourgeois government, and within the army, to the high command.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;VII. The Crisis of the Regime and the Bonapartist Plan of the MFA&lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1. A Regime in Permanent Crisis&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Those who defend the characterization of the Portuguese regime as Bonapartist run into an insoluble contradiction. Bonapartism is, by definition, a regime of law and order, capable of playing the role of arbiter between the different social sectors and enforcing its decisions. Nothing can appear further from this than the MFA, which lives in a state of permanent crisis, and which in little more than a year has undergone four or five crises. In general, our authors have given up characterizing the political significance of these crises, limiting themselves to saying that they existed and were overcome. Trotsky's law, which states that changing from one regime to another provokes a political crisis, was not taken into account by these comrades. They did not ask themselves this simple question : What kind of regime or projected regimes entered into conflict, provoking these crises ? Some are still more curious, since they are of the opinion that Sp&#237;nola's attempted coups were ... Bonapartist. If we go by the laws of logic, we should arrive at the conclusion that they were Bonapartist coups intended to topple one Bonapartist government to replace it with another, likewise Bonapartist government.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We cannot avoid an embarrassing comparison. Third Period Stalinism defined all governments and bourgeois parties as fascist. Trotsky pointed out again and again the absurdity of the Stalinist portrait of fascist governments fighting against the attempted coups of fascists.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It would have been farcical if it had not been tragic : The Communist militants could not understand what it was all about ; and as a result, they were incapable of combating genuine fascism, which they could not even distinguish from the other bourgeois parties and the Social Democracy. Unfortunately, this method which was responsible for the big defeats suffered by the workers movement forty years ago, is in vogue again within our ranks. Everything is Bonapartism : Sp&#237;nola's coup attempt as well as the government against which he directed this attempt. Thus, our parties and militants are disarmed when it comes to confronting the real danger : in his time, Sp&#237;nola ; today, the course the MFA government is following.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The chronic crisis of the MFA government and its increasingly acute crises clearly demonstrate that this is not a Bonapartist government. And, in addition, they point without ambiguity in the right direction. There is only one form of bourgeois regime that has this characteristic as an essential trait (not episodic) : Kerenskyism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This is so because Kerenskyism is a form of &#8220;abnormal&#8221; bourgeois government, a result of the rise of the proletarian revolution and its own impotence. In every normal capitalist regime, the mobilized masses play no role whatever. In a parliamentary-democratic regime, they intervene only indirectly, through the vote they register from time to time. The first thing the more democratic bourgeois constitutions lay down is that the people govern only though their &#8220;representatives.&#8221; In Bonaparatist and fascist regimes in general they even do without the fiction of the government being &#8220;representative,&#8221; and the government rules directly through the bureaucracy. In both cases a passive role is reserved for the masses : The Peronist &#8220;sui generis&#8221; Bonapartism coined a very illustrative phrase : &#8220;From home to work and from work to home.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The revolutionary tide turns this upside down. The masses take to the streets and intervene fully in the political life of the country, creating with their mobilizations a de facto power parallel to that of the bourgeois state. This working-class power has not yet been able to give rise in Portugal to soviet-type organisms, but despite this, as spontaneous and molecular as it still is it keeps the bourgeois power constantly in check.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Two powers confronting each other cancel each other out (at least, to a large degree). The result is a political vacuum that the bourgeoisie cannot tolerate. Kerenskyism is a regime whose normal state of being is disorder : That is why it cannot last very long. A new bourgeois order must replace it (parliamentary, Bonapartist, or fascist) or the socialist order of the proletarian revolution.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This explains the concern and the urgency displayed by the bourgeoisie in its efforts to reconstruct a normal bourgeois regime. The crises of the Portuguese government are the result of these attempts. We have already quoted Trotsky : &#8220;The passage from one system to another signifies the political crisis.&#8221; Each crisis of the Portuguese regime was an expression of the counterrevolutionary attempt to change &#8220;from one system to another,&#8221; which the masses were able to prevent and which, contradictorily, strengthened the revolution and weakened the counterrevolution, sharpening the Kerenskyist characteristics of the government. It is no accident that the most serious crises, up to now, were those of September and March, when Sp&#237;nola tried to impose a change of regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The crisis detonated by the internal struggle that is developing today between the MFA and the PCP on one hand, and the SP and PPD [Partido Popular Democr&#224;tico&#8212;Democratic People's Party] on the other, is the result of another similar attempt : the attempt of the Bonapartist wing of the MFA (with the support of the CP) to overcome Kerenskyism through the imposition of a Bonapartist regime.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2. Sp&#237;nola Versus the MFA-CP-SP Bloc&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We have already pointed out how the first attempts by the Portuguese bourgeoisie in the proper sense of the term, to rapidly overcome the Kerenskyist regime were Sp&#237;nola's three attempts to impose a strong government. Even if his political project was Bonapartist, it is quite probable that it was oriented objectively toward fascism, in that it sought a counterrevolutionary mobilization of the petty bourgeoisie, appealing to the famous &#8220;silent majority.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The disaster suffered by this plan through the defeat of Sp&#237;nola and the flight from the country of a large number of capitalists has taken the plan from the eminently political arena &#8212; there is nobody with enough strength to execute it&#8212;and shifted it to the economic arena. It is a matter of economic sabotage by means of the disorganization of the economy, the flight of capital, the closing of factories, layoffs, rising prices, etc. All of this, combined with the economic isolation to which Portugal has been subjected by imperialism, has created a chaotic and unbearable situation, which, in turn, creates the conditions for the rise of fascism, to the extent that it begins to foster desperation in the ranks of the petty bourgeoisie. At the same time, the return of the colons who are fleeing the revolution in the African territories will add new contingents to the possible mass base of fascism, and this can occur to a smaller degree with the unemployed workers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This does not mean that fascism is inevitable, although it will become more probable with prolongation of the crisis because of the lack of a revolutionary alternative for the working class. The MFA, as we already saw, opposed the Sp&#237;nolist attempt, and for the present, it has not embarked on a fascist-type course. But the possibility cannot be discarded that like all petty-bourgeois movements, a wing of it will arise that will orient in that direction, reflecting precisely the turn toward the fascist counterrevolution by sectors of the middle class, in the event this should occur. In any case, this is not the perspective for the immediate future.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Sp&#237;nola was confronted not only by the masses, but also by the governmental MFA-CP-SP bloc. This bloc of the democratic petty bourgeoisie was opposed to Sp&#237;nola's attempts to prevent the Constituent Assembly and the negotiation of political independence for the colonies. But, in opposing the candidate for dictator, each of the components of this bloc defended its own specific interests and from different points of view :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Communist Party, main opponent of Sp&#237;nola, had no possibility at all of continuing to participate in a government based on the defeat of the workers movement. On the other hand, Sp&#237;nola's policies of immediate negotiations with the European Common Market made the possibility of participating in his cabinet even more remote. But there was also another profound reason, perhaps even more weighty than the loss of posts in the ministries. Had Sp&#237;nola triumphed, Cunhal's retirement from the cabinet would not have been as placid as the retirement of Thorez and Togliatti from the French and Italian cabinets after the war. Cunhal would not have been able to play the role of &#8220;opposition to His Majesty&#8221; in a tranquil parliamentary regime. On the contrary, Sp&#237;nola's victory would almost certainly have given the green light to the &#8220;silent majority&#8221; &#8212; that is, the reactionary petty bourgeoisie&#8212;to launch a &#8220;witch-hunt,&#8221; especially against the Communists, which would have meant a regime with at least fascist traits.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Socialist Party for its part needed&#8212;and needs&#8212;a parliament and elections just as much as lungs need air in order to breathe. The SP is nothing without a parliamentary regime. Because of this, despite agreeing with Sp&#237;nola with regard to speedy admission to the European Common Market, it did have a tactical difference with him&#8212;the parliament&#8212;which, for a reformist party, is a matter of principle.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Finally, the MFA&#8212;although a majority under the leadership of Vasco Goncalves&#8212;accepted an agreement with the reformist parties, it had within it a Sp&#237;nolist tendency of a certain importance. Once again, the similarity with Kerensky stands out. It is well known that Kerensky, up to a certain point, played Kornilov's game. The same thing occurred with the MFA and Sp&#237;nola. These doubts and oscillations of the MFA between the reformist parties and Sp&#237;nola are part of its nature. They are doubts over the bourgeois-democratic or Bonapartist variants of putting a brake on and defeating the revolution. Sp&#237;nola's &#8220;putschs&#8221; and the colossal mass mobilizations that were unleashed against them, turned the MFA toward a united front with the reformist parties, but without abandoning its pursuit of a Bonapartist plan to bring the mass movement under control once and for all.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;During this entire period of unity in the petty-bourgeois MFA-CP-SP bloc, the common program and ideology were bourgeois-democratic. The objective was to achieve a parliamentary system, beginning with the Constituent Assembly, which would channel the rise of the mass movement into the blind alley of bourgeois democracy. Bourgeois-democratic institutions are not progressive, taken as absolutes. They are progressive so long as the mass mobilizations have not reached a revolutionary level nor created organs of power. They cease being so, and become relatively counterrevolutionary or relatively progressive, when the class struggle has gone beyond the bourgeois-democratic limits. This is the case in Portugal today, with its organs of dual power : the workers and soldiers commissions.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This counterrevolutionary parliamentary plan is supported, as Horowitz correctly points out, by the most lucid sectors of the bourgeoisie, which see it as the best possibility for freezing the mass movement without resorting to bloody methods, which, in addition, they are in no condition to apply and whose results would be unforeseeable, a game of take all or lose all. It is a plan similar to the one applied to block the revolution in Western Europe after the war. But it is incomparably weaker despite the fact that those parties that are strongest in the electoral arena, the SP and the PPD, have given it unconditional support.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The weaknesses of this plan lie in various factors. One of these is that unlike Western Europe after the war, the Portuguese bourgeoisie does not have the guarantee that the presence of Allied occupation troops signified, especially the U.S. army, which was victorious, disciplined, and without the slightest trace of an internal crisis, exactly the opposite to the present Portuguese army. Also lacking in Portugal is the strong parliamentary tradition of Western Europe. But these are not the only elements of weakness in the parliamentary plan. There are others.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the first place, there is the strength of the revolutionary upsurge of the movement of the workers and the mass movement. In the second place, there is the absence of strong bureaucratic organisms of the workers movement like the ones that existed in France and Italy, in which Stalinism was able to exercise iron control. In the third place, the fact of being the major working-class parties in those countries made the CPs favor parliamentarism ; the opposite is occurring in Portugal today. Finally, there are two more factors that weaken still further the plan for a parliamentary counterrevolution. These are, on the one hand, that any bourgeois-democratic regime would weaken still more the already weak Portuguese bourgeoisie in face of a sudden attack by the big imperialist powers, and, on the other hand, that the general crisis of imperialism makes less and less viable these types of regimes, which in order to maintain themselves need a minimum of social and economic stability.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Because of all these factors, a parliamentary counterrevolution could place the bourgeoisie itself in jeopardy : The movement of the workers and masses, impelled by a dizzying revolutionary upsurge, could utilize for its own purposes the democratic-parliamentary opening, escaping all electoral control thanks precisely to the weakness of the bourgeoisie and its own bureaucratic apparatuses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;3. The Revolutionary Upsurge Turns the MFA Toward a Counterrevolutionary Policy and Ideology&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Faced with the weakness of the bourgeois-democratic plan and the intensification of the workers and colonial revolutions, the MFA has begun to turn toward a counterrevolutionary Bonapartist policy. It is thus at tempting to impose a Bonapartist government whose fundamental objectives are the following : to eliminate all the germs of dual power ; take away from the masses the democratic rights they have won and block the conquest of new rights ; continue to control the empire under a neocolonial form (especially Angola) ; guarantee an upward trend in capitalist production ; and negotiate from a position of strength their partnership with the senior imperialist powers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The fundamental reason for this change in the MFA resides in the extremely acute contradictions that reign in Portugal, which make it even more imperative for the MFA to transform itself into a strong government able to &#8220;rise&#8221; above them. In government, the MFA has to contend with a colossal upsurge in the movement of the workers and soldiers crystallized in embryonic forms of dual power, and with the Angolan colonial revolution. In addition, because it is a senile, backward imperialist power, Portugal has to face and negotiate with stronger imperialist powers, which try to utilize its crisis and decadence to become its senior partners. These contradictions&#8212;at one pole the workers and colonial revolutions, and at the other the pressure of the big imperialist powers&#8212;have divided the Portuguese bourgeoisie and its petty-bourgeois agent, the MFA, into different sectors, troubled by different problems. How to stop the workers and colonial revolutions ? How to keep losses to a minimum in the negotiations with the big imperialist powers ?&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This turn toward a Bonapattist policy manifests itself in a clear counterrevolutionary ideology. The MFA has ceased making any statements in favor of democracy and pluralism of parties, characteristic of the past year when it confronted Sp&#237;nola, and has begun to speak of &#8220;direct democracy&#8221; and of the organs of power that emerged from the mass movement against formal parliamentarism. All of this is seasoned with the &#8220;march toward socialism.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The goal is obvious : Unable to come out against the democratic rights of the movement of the workers and the masses, the MFA is attempting to pit proletarian democracy against them, utilizing for this purpose criticisms of bourgeois democracy taken from the arsenal of Marxism. They have not invented anything new : Bonapartism and fascism have always opposed bourgeois democracy, and have demagogically used our criticisms of it to justify their counterrevolutionary and antidemocratic politics. Part of this demagogic maneuver is the attack on the Socialist Party and the reactionary bourgeois parties which are demanding democratic rights. A Marxist truth is thrown against them : All of them are agents of the counterrevolution. But this truth, separated from another, much more important one&#8212;the main counterrevolutionary agent at present is the government of the MFA with its Bonapartist plan&#8212;is transformed into a demagogic lie, designed to restrict democratic rights.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The other campaign is the so-called battle for production. According to the ideologists of the MFA, the problem is to increase production in order to build socialism, or come closer to it, not in favor of the bourgeoisie, but in favor of the working class. As part of this demagogic campaign, the better to deceive them, the masses are told that the progressive measures adopted under pressure of the struggles of the movement of the workers and the masses&#8212;the nationalizations for example&#8212;are also measures in the march toward socialism.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Combining the two most urgent needs (to deceive the working anci colonial masses in order to put a brake on the revolution and to resist the European Common Market so as to strengthen the indigenous imperialism), the Bonapartist wing of the MFA raises as its dominant ideology &#8220;anti-imperialist nationalism,&#8221; attempting to copy the forms of the nationalist movements of the colonial and the semicolonial countries. By doing this, Portuguese imperialism, through its petty-bourgeois agents of the MFA, continues in the old imperialist tradition : masking its plundering with an attractive ideology, to mobilize in its behalf the opinion of the working class and the petty bourgeoisie.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Since it came into being, imperialism has hidden the genuinely bandit character of its colonialization under guise of &#8220;civilizing&#8221; the backward countries. Later on, when England, France, and the U.S.A. were enjoying to the full their colonies and power, they raised the slogan of &#8220;defense of democracy&#8221; against their rivals who came late to the division of the booty. These countries&#8212;Germany, Italy, Japan &#8212; promoted in turn the ideology of the &#8220;superior race&#8221; and other such stupidities in order to deceive the masses and lead them to the slaughter. They were expanding imperialisms that wanted to take the colonies away from the old empires, surfeited with subjugated countries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;But Portugal is not even a shadow of the old imperialisms, nor was Nazi Germany or Japan. It cannot raise the banner of democracy, because it is used by its enemy-partners of the European Common Market. Nor can it utilize the slogan of the &#8220;superior race,&#8221; because it is not expanding, but decaying and crisis-ridden, and its economic power would not enable it to conquer even the Republic of Andorra. It has to be content with saving whatever it can of its old empire from the colonial revolution and from the attack of the big imperialist powers. To do that it has had to invent a new ideology. What is better than disguising itself as nationalist, as anti-imperialist ? If the masses believe it, then their main enemy is not their own imperialism but other, stronger imperialisms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The ideology of the MFA is like the counterrevolutionary nationalist ideologies of other small or decadent imperialisms. When the tsarist empire was falling, the Russian Social Revolutionaries discovered that it was necessary to continue the imperialist war so that &#8220;revolutionary&#8221; Russia would not be subjugated by the Prussian imperialist barbarism. It is similar to the anti-American Canadian nationalism and to the sector of the British bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie who voted against entering the European Common Market.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Like those nationalisms, the nationalism of the MFA is not in the least progressive ; it is reactionary no matter how you look at it. To avoid confusion, it is requisite that we resort to the clear distinction that Marxism makes between the nationalism of colonial and semicolonial countries and that of imperialist countries. The former is progressive ; it weakens imperialism. The latter is counter revolutionary ; it favors imperialism precisely because it is the nationalism of an imperialist country. For this reason we Trotskyists defend backward countries against attack by an imperialist country, but favor defeat of the imperialist country in a war with another country, whether that country is imperialist or not. For a consistent Marxist the best is always &#8220;defeat of the imperialist country,&#8221; no matter whether it is backward, senile, young, or surfeited with riches and colonies.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Logically, as the weak imperialism that it is, the MFA's imperialism will be very careful not to touch the property of other imperialisms. It will be content with nationalizing the businesses of the Portuguese oligarchy and the property of those who abandoned the country, but in order to place them at the service of the bourgeois imperialist state, to remove them from workers control. Thus they can use them as their trump card in negotiating with the colonies and other imperialisms, in the interests of Portuguese imperialism. Because of this, if a financial and commercial war breaks out between the imperialist bandits of the MFA and European imperialism over control of the Portuguese colonies, our mission would not be to come out in favor of the poor imperialism against the rich one. We should wash our hands, &#8220;the lesser evil is the defeat of your own country.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In its counterrevolutionary politics, the MFA's best ally, or better said, its ally come what may, has turned out to be the Communist Party.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;4. The MFA-CP : New Counterrevolutionary Front Provoked by the Upsurge&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We have stressed the relatively progressive role that the Communist Party, and to a lesser degree the MFA and the SP, played in calling upon the workers to oppose the demonstration prepared by Sp&#237;nola in attempting his first frustrated coup. We have pointed out that this was one face, the positive one, of the contradictory politics of the petty-bourgeois democrats : to stop the Sp&#237;nolist counter-revolution. We also said that the CP as well as the SP and MFA fully presented the other face, the negative one : to likewise stop the workers revolution by demobilizing the masses. Finally, we maintained that this policy of the petty-bourgeois democrats began to change, provoking internal divisions as the workers upsurge intensified and the immediate danger of a bourgeois counterrevolution subsided : The MFA and the CP turned toward a Bonapartist counterrevolution ; the SP and its ally the PPD remained in the camp of bourgeois democracy. Let us examine the reasons.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Already before Sp&#237;nola's coup, this wing of the petty-bourgeois democracy, the MFA-CP, in face of the deepening workers upsurge, began to orient toward the counter-revolution. It attempted to halt and smash the mass movement, taking away from it the big concessions already obtained, especially the Constituent Assembly, through the famous &#8220;Pact,&#8221; and trying to bar the conquests placed on the agenda by the factory occupations and the development of workers commissions. It was then that the CP and the MFA came closer together, agreeing to impose on the rising workers movement a Bonapartist government based on the MFA-CP-Intersindical combination. The correspondent of Le Monde Diplomatique, already mentioned above, testifies : &#8220;No one has been able to control successive waves of the social movement during this period except the Portuguese Communist Party, which, changing its strategy en route, has made an effort to contain and control the occupations in Alentejo, a region traditionally considered Communist or Communistic.&#8221;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;From that moment on, the MFA government reinforced the agreement reached with the CP at the opening of the year when the workers upsurge began. The more advanced and profound character taken by the upsurge since the frustrated &#8220;putsch&#8221; explains why, according to the same correspondent, &#8220;March 11 brought about a temporary improvement in PCP-MFA relations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In combination with sectors of the MFA, the CP has become the transmission belt within the workers movement for a new Bonapartist plan ; such is the character of the political counterattack of the petty bourgeoisie that we pointed out.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This counterrevolutionary plan is not the same as Sp&#237;nola's plan of delivering a single definitive blow to the revolution. The extraordinary strength of the movement of the workers and the masses compels them to use other methods : to proceed by dealing blows a little at a time and smashing the movement by sectors. Also, instead of openly doing away with their gains, they recognize some of them in order to transform them into counterrevolutionary weapons with which to attack other gains. To rule, one must divide.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;If the SP-PPD bloc has severed relations with the Bonapartist wing of the MFA-CP, it has not done so logically, out of concern for the democratic rights of the workers movement. It has been and still is a counterrevolutionary bloc, a mortal enemy of the factory occupations, of the seeds of dual power, of the nationalizations, and of the workers revolution. It is the continuer of the counterrevolutionary plan of the MFA-CP-SP prior to March 11, of the Constituent Assembly and parliamentary plan to ward off the revolution. The present opposition of the SP-PPD to the MFA-CP stems from their differences over which is the best counterrevolutionary tactic. But this alone does not explain why the rupturing of the previous front was so violent. We believe there are two weighty reasons that made this break or clash inevitable. The first is that, as we pointed out above, for the SP (and possibly also for the PPD) the existence of a parliament is a matter of life or death, because without a parliament it ceases to be what it is, an electoral party. The second reason stems from its role as an agent of European imperialism and of the strongest sectors of Portuguese imperialism that believe their only way out is through association with the European Common Market.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;5. The Communist Party : Agent of the Kremlin and the MFA&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;We have seen that the MFA has become divided over and is oscillating between two plans : Bonapartism and parliamentarism. Its big ally in backing the first plan is the Portuguese Communist Party.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Horowitz explains this alliance of the CP and the MFA as resulting from the MFA's need of the CP to control the workers movement. He forgets that the CP is also almost indispensable for the MFA's neocolonial maneuver because of the influence of world Stalinism over the nationalist movements and especially that of the Portuguese colonies. In other words, the MFA needs the CP to halt the workers revolution in Portugal and the colonial revolution in the empire. But if this explains the MFA's policy toward the CP, it does not explain why the CP does not accept the parliamentary game nor why the CP clashes with the SP. There must be profound reasons for this Stalinist game.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bourgeois journalists counterpose the policy of the Italian and French Stalinists to that of the Portuguese Stalinists. However, although they are formally different, they are not so in terms of content. All world Stalinism, and particularly European Stalinism, has a common feature : They are agents of the Soviet bureaucracy. They are tied to it not only ideologically but&#8212;and this is the essence&#8212;as appendages of an extremely powerful apparatus. They faithfully serve the diplomatic needs of the Kremlin, that is, they adjust their politics to the concrete circumstances of each country the better to defend the bureaucratic apparatus of which they are a part, and whose head and heart is to be found in Moscow.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;That is the key to the question. Stalinism does not at present carry out everywhere in the world the popular frontist policy it applied between 1935 and 1947 of total and absolute subordination to &#8220;democratic&#8221; imperialism against fascism. Today the Soviet Union is the second world power, and it defends this situation with a policy of maintaining the &#8220;status quo.&#8221; This policy has two sides :&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;One is to stop the world revolution, and the Kremlin agrees with imperialism on this point ; the other is to try to impede the strengthening of imperialism, which it does by trying to add to the &#8220;neutral countries,&#8221; that is, those relatively independent of the big imperialist powers within the capitalist world. This second aspect of the Kremlin's policy manifests itself essentially through diplomatic maneuvers of support, plus the support of local Communist parties, to the regimes in semicolonial countries that take relatively independent positions in relation to imperialism. Such is the case with India, Peru, Egypt, Bolivia under Torres, Chile under Allende. This neutrality, in the final analysis, winds up benefiting U.S. imperialism by halting the revolution. Examples : Chile, Egypt, Bolivia.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Portugal is not a semicolonial, but an imperialist, country. However, it is an imperialist country that, although weak, is for the time being autarchical, relatively independent of the big imperialist powers. And the Kremlin wants this to continue as long as possible, since Portugal's &#8220;neutrality&#8221; strengthens its policy of negotiating with imperialism in containing the world revolution, but from a position of strength, not of complete subordination as during the period from 1935 to 1947. (This does not reject the hypothesis that, in the final analysis, the Kremlin and the Portuguese CP are playing a game in behalf of the United States. Alvaro Cunhal's statements are extremely friendly and suspicious when he refers to U.S. imperialism ; so are Kissinger's statements, when he refers to Portuguese imperialism.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;These basic considerations should be the framework of our interpretation of the political &#8220;differences&#8221; between Portuguese, French, and Italian Stalinism. All three serve the Kremlin but must adapt their politics to their respective national realities. The CPs of France and Italy are the reformist parties that receive the highest vote in a relatively stable parliamentary regime. The Portuguese CP finds itself under heavy pressure in a revolutionary situation of dual power, in which it is a minority in the electoral arena. Electorally, the Portuguese Stalinists cannot pressure the bourgeoisie to accede power to them and thereby safeguard capitalism and strengthen the Kremlin's diplomacy.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;That is, the CP does not in a major way serve the plan of the parliamentary wing of the MFA, linked to the European Common Market. But, because of its centralism and its cadres, the Portuguese Stalinists have the only organization that can collaborate with the counterrevolutionary Bonapartist plan of the MFA. The CP is, in fact, the only party that can control the unions and maybe, with time, the organs of dual power.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The different structure and technique of the CP, its &#8220;Bolshevik&#8221; inheritance, its daily work in the mass movement (although with a reformist or counterrevolutionary policy), the creation among the masses of specific organizations, cells or fractions under iron centralism, all make it, unlike the SP, indispensable to the MFA. The SP, with an exclusively electoral organization, lacking a base structure and discipline, formed as an electoral movement rather than a centralized party, is not indispensable to the MFA. It is because of this that the CP, rather than the SP, is considered an essential ingredient in counterrevolutionary politics as a whole at this stage of dual power.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In principle, we can point out that this tendency of Stalinism to collaborate with Bonapartism or Bonapartist projects is not an isolated phenomenon limited to Portugal. It has been repeated in other countries where the CPs were in a minority in the electoral arena as, for example, in Peru. But although their electoral weakness may be the immediate explanation for such policies, we believe that it is a more generalized phenomenon than may appear. In Uruguay, it continually urged the &#8220;Peruvianist&#8221; military figures to take power by means of a coup d'&#233;tat, and it does not appear to us to be accidental that General Seregni was the head of the electoral coalition, the Frente Ampho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Even in countries where Stalinism is a real electoral power, it has shown a tendency toward Bonapartism. In postwar France it was the champion of the reorganization of the bourgeois army, and, in the beginning, it decidedly supported de Gaulle. In Italy during the same period, Togliatti, faced in a referendum with deciding between a monarchy and a republic, came out in favor of the former, and only repudiation by the Stalinist rank and file obliged him to change his mind.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the case of Portugal there are two very significant historic examples that can serve to illustrate this permanent trait in Stalinist politics in revolutionary situations. In Chile under Allende, the CP argued for the participation of the military in the cabinet and for a rightist bourgeois policy against the proposals of the Socialist Party.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In republican Spain, this extreme-right policy was applied to the bitter end. The Stalinist CP imported the counterrevolutionary police methods of the GPU to Spanish soil to help implant the semi-Bonapartist regime headed by Negrin, which clashed not only with the POUMist and anarchist currents, but also with the SP of Largo Caballero.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There must be a Marxist interpretation of these phenomena, a law to explain them. Our hypothesis&#8212;and we stress that it is a hypothesis, a line of investigation not a conclusive opinion&#8212;is that the Bonapartist tendencies of the CP have a fundamental reason : They are part of the Soviet bureaucracy's apparatus ; this factor exerts its influence in a dual way. In the first place, the Communist parties do not have a direct relation with the proletariat and the masses of the countries in which they operate, but do have a direct relation with the Kremlin's apparatus, which permits them&#8212;unlike the Socialist parties&#8212;to operate much more independently of the feelings and desires of the broad masses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the second place, the apparatus on which they depend is Bonapartist, it is the Bonapartist dictatorship of the Soviet bureaucracy that &#8220;infects&#8221; all of the Communist parties.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The CPs are, in their own way, &#8220;Bonapartist,&#8221; totalitarian to an extreme degree. The reason for their discipline and politics comes from the bureaucracy, from their own international and national &#8220;apparatus.&#8221; This explains their bureaucratic or &#8220;Bonapartist&#8221; centralism. This gives them the ability to collaborate with the bourgeois Bonapartism of this or that apparatus.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Socialist parties are a different case. These can exist only under the conditions of bourgeois democracy. To this should be added their better connection with the masses&#8212;which obliges them to reflect more directly the needs and aspirations of the masses ; the lesser weight of the party's bureaucratic apparatus ; and on an international level, the fact that they do not form part of a great world apparatus whose axis is the bureaucracy ruling the Russian workers state, the second world power.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;All of these objective aspects should not lead us to forget the content of Stalinist politics. Stalinism, as a current in the workers movement, is a result of the counterrevolutionary influence of the subsidence of the first triumphant workers revolution. It is not the same as the Social Democracy, which arose from the upsurge of the workers movement under the bourgeoisie in the highly favorable circumstances of bourgeois democracy. This makes the Stalinists much more alert and responsive to the needs of counterrevolutionary Bonapartism, which will use it as an agent, than the Socialist parties, which are tied a little more closely to the needs of its rank and file, and above all, to bourgeois-democratic rights.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;6. The Socialist Party and Its Alliance With the PPD and Costa Gomes&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;If the CP is the great ally of the MFA in its counterrevolutionary Bonapartist plan, the SP is the ally of the PPD and Costa Gomes in the equally counterrevolutionary semiparliamentary plan.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;According to Livio Maitan, &#8220;... a large part, perhaps the majority, of the working class has seen the PSP as the instrument of its struggle. This may be regarded&#8212;and correctly&#8212;as a result of the insufficient experience of the Portuguese workers with Social Democratic reformism and a lack of clarity about the roles actually played by the various formations in the workers movement. But, at the same time, it must be understood that the PSP has been able to take advantage of the revulsion of sections of the proletariat against the PCP's bureaucratic methods, its open opposition to a series of struggles, and its seizing the leading positions in the unions by maneuvers at the top. Moreover, the PSP has been able to take advantage of the general demand for the right of democratic expression, which, after all, is natural in a working class that has emerged from nearly a half century of dictatorship. Certainly at least some of the strata of the proletariat did not take favorably to the famous pact imposed by the MFA, which made the Constituent Assembly virtually a dead letter.&#8221; (Livio Maitan, The MFA or Revolutionary Workers Democracy, Intercontinental Press, June 9, 1975, p.759.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;As an explanation of the way in which the PSP came to be the largest current&#8212;without a &#8220;perhaps&#8221;&#8212;in the workers movement, it is totally correct. But this does not exhaust the analysis of the PSP, since it does not take into account its leadership nor its program.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For his part, Horowitz makes different mistakes. The first is that in his entire article he mentions this party only once, despite its being the majority party in the working class. The second is that, like Maitan, he does not denounce the SP as an agent of European imperialism. This is surprising, since this characteristic is blatantly proclaimed by its top leader. &#8220;My party,&#8221; says M&#224;rio Soares in Le Monde Diplomatique, &#8220;is democratic. It is the largest Portuguese party. I do not deny that it had a democratic parliamentary and reformist plan that would have enabled it to avoid the great commotion that broke out over the linking of Portugal to the Europe of the Common Market.&#8221; Horowitz's third mistake juts out when he says that &#8220;the Communist Party's policy can lead the Portuguese working class into a terrible tragedy, for it can disarm the workers in face of the future danger of a major violent repressive attack by the ruling class.&#8221; (Emphasis added.) And doesn't the Socialist Party have any responsibility in &#8220;disarming the workers&#8221; in face of the &#8220;ruling class,&#8221; inasmuch as it is the majority working-class party ? Not to denounce the SP's politics, not to clearly and unmistakably point out the &#8220;division of labor&#8221; with the CP in &#8220;disarming the workers,&#8221; is to unconsciously play the game of reformism. In justifiable eagerness to defend the democratic rights of the SP from the attacks of the MFA-CP, some underline its character as the majority working class party. But, when the time comes to assign responsibilities for disarming the revolution, this characteristic seems to vanish. However, the SP has been the permanent ally of the MFA-CP in the struggle against the workers revolution. It is not accidental that it remains intimately linked to Costa Gomes, that it signed the antidemocratic &#8220;Pact,&#8221; and is opposed to the nationalizations and factory occupations.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Summarizing then, there is an acute contradiction within the SP, which is all the worse because, with the exception of its leadership cadres, who were educated by European Social Democracy, it is a new party in the process of being built, lacking older cadres. It is more a movement than a solidly structured party. Its strong rivalry with the MFA and CP stems from its dual character : an ambiguous and unclear expression of the highly positive feelings of the movement of the workers and the masses toward winning and defending democratic rights ; a transmission belt of European imperialism (it is necessary to study whether this last aspect has been reinforced by a certain sympathy toward the European Common Market by a part of the large sector of the populace that benefits from money sent by workers who have emigrated to some of the countries within it).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Lire aussi :&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/index.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/index.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/port10.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/port10.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/port12.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/history/etol/writers/marcy/portugal/port12.html?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/portugues/goldner/2000/mes/ubu/cap01.htm?_x_tr_sl=pt&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/portugues/goldner/2000/mes/ubu/cap01.htm?_x_tr_sl=pt&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/archive/cliff/works/1976/03/portugal.htm?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&#034; class=&#034;spip_url spip_out auto&#034; rel=&#034;nofollow external&#034;&gt;https://www-marxists-org.translate.goog/archive/cliff/works/1976/03/portugal.htm?_x_tr_sl=en&amp;_x_tr_tl=fr&amp;_x_tr_hl=fr&amp;_x_tr_pto=sc&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Luttes de classes au Portugal</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article5604</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article5604</guid>
		<dc:date>2017-11-22T00:08:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>R&#233;volution</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Gr&#232;ve Strike</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Ouvriers Workers</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Bourgeois</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>prol&#233;taires</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Manifestation</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Syndicalism - le syndicalisme</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>R&#233;volution bourgeoise</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>R&#233;volte</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Lutte de classes - Class struggle</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Luttes de classes au Portugal &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Pr&#233;histoire et Antiquit&#233; &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La civilisation des dolmens du sud du Portugal &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
L'occupation romaine &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La conqu&#234;te musulmane &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Naissance du royaume &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
XVe si&#232;cle : colonialisme portugais &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1908 : le roi du Portugal &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
R&#233;volution de 1910 &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1911 : r&#233;publicanisme &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Guerre coloniales portugaises &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1975 : la lutte du peuple angolais &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
R&#233;volution de 1975 &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1975 : o&#249; va le Portugal ? (en) &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
1975 : la r&#233;volution (en) &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
R&#233;volution et contre-r&#233;volution &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Luttes de classes au (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique99" rel="directory"&gt;08- LUTTE DES CLASSES - CLASS STRUGGLE &lt;/a&gt;

/ 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot45" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volution&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot46" rel="tag"&gt;Gr&#232;ve Strike&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot49" rel="tag"&gt;Ouvriers Workers&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot51" rel="tag"&gt;Bourgeois&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot58" rel="tag"&gt;prol&#233;taires&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot95" rel="tag"&gt;Manifestation&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot110" rel="tag"&gt;Syndicalism - le syndicalisme&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot112" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volution bourgeoise&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot139" rel="tag"&gt;R&#233;volte&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot278" rel="tag"&gt;Lutte de classes - Class struggle&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Luttes de classes au Portugal&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://portugal.beleza.free.fr/histoire.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Pr&#233;histoire et Antiquit&#233;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article1618&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La civilisation des dolmens du sud du Portugal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Portugal#Province_romaine&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;L'occupation romaine&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Portugal#Conqu.C3.AAte_musulmane&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La conqu&#234;te musulmane&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Portugal#Naissance_du_royaume_de_Portugal&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Naissance du royaume&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_colonial_portugais&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;XVe si&#232;cle : colonialisme portugais&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/feb/19c.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1908 : le roi du Portugal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article966&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;R&#233;volution de 1910&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/archive/bax/1911/03/republican-portugal.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1911 : r&#233;publicanisme&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_coloniales_portugaises&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Guerre coloniales portugaises&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-1a/otl-angola.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1975 : la lutte du peuple angolais&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article117&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;R&#233;volution de 1975&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1975/portugal/&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1975 : o&#249; va le Portugal ? (en)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/archive/grant/1975/05/portugal.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1975 : la r&#233;volution (en)&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/document/portugal/index.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;R&#233;volution et contre-r&#233;volution&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://vosstanie.blogspot.fr/2014/09/la-lutte-des-classes-au-portugal.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Luttes de classes au Portugal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://paris-luttes.info/emission-radio-la-lutte-des&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La lutte des classes au Portugal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/isj/1977/no101/notm2.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;1977 : patrons et gouvernement &#224; l'offensive&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.marxists.org/portugues/rodrigues/ano/mes/classes-hoje.htm&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2005 : classes sociales&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.lepetitjournal.com/lisbonne/articles/20258-greve-dans-les-transports-aeriens-les-avions-de-la-tap-perdent-leur-envol&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2007 : gr&#232;ve des transports a&#233;riens&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.rfi.fr/europe/20120918-portugal-ports-paralyses-greves&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2012 : gr&#232;ve portuaire&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.rfi.fr/europe/20130531-appel-principal-syndicat-portugais-ont-manifeste-contre-austerite&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2013 : manifestation contre l'aust&#233;rit&#233;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3003&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lutte des dockers de 2013&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.rtbf.be/info/economie/detail_portugal-les-cheminots-en-greve-contre-les-coupes-salariales?id=8129519&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2013 : gr&#232;ve des cheminots&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/economie/dossier/le-portugal-en-pleine-austerite&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2015 : aust&#233;rit&#233;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-eco/2015/04/01/97002-20150401FILWWW00179-portugal-greve-dans-une-usine-renault.php&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2015 : gr&#232;ve Renault&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.humanite.fr/nouvelle-greve-pour-les-salaires-lusine-renault-au-portugal-573555&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Nouvelle gr&#232;ve &#224; Renault&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.force-ouvriere.fr/deuxieme-semaine-de-greve-a-la-caixa-geral-de-depositos-banque&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2016 : gr&#232;ve &#224; la banque du Portugal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-eco/2017/05/26/97002-20170526FILWWW00096-portugal-greve-des-fonctionnaires.php&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;2017 : gr&#232;ve des fonctionnaires&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;https://berthoalain.com/?s=Portugal&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Affrontements et &#233;meutes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.labourstart.org/news/country.php?country=Portugal&amp;langcode=fr&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Luttes de classes r&#233;centes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>La r&#233;volution portugaise des oeillets en films</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3706</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3706</guid>
		<dc:date>2013-09-07T02:02:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Video</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;La r&#233;volution portugaise des oeillets en films &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La r&#233;volution portugaise en textes &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Le Portugal de l'apr&#232;s guerre mondiale toujours aux mains de l'extr&#234;me droite salazariste &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Le Portugal enlis&#233; dans une guerre coloniale La guerre du Portugal en Angola &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
L'opposition &#224; la guerre d'Angola &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Les jeunes portugais d&#233;sertent des guerres africaines &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La jeunesse portugaise &#233;migre &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Le r&#233;gime fond&#233; sur une police politique qui pratique la torture &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Spinola &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Caetano &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
La r&#233;volution des &#339;illets (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique166" rel="directory"&gt;23 - Commentaires de films&lt;/a&gt;

/ 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot100" rel="tag"&gt;Video&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;div class='spip_document_3983 spip_document spip_documents spip_document_image spip_documents_center spip_document_center'&gt;
&lt;figure class=&#034;spip_doc_inner&#034;&gt; &lt;img src='https://www.matierevolution.org/local/cache-vignettes/L407xH360/larevolutiondesoeillets-d3c7b.jpg?1779675524' width='407' height='360' alt='' /&gt;
&lt;/figure&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;La r&#233;volution portugaise des oeillets en films&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.matierevolution.fr/spip.php?article117&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La r&#233;volution portugaise en textes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/CAF93032003/le-portugal-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Le Portugal de l'apr&#232;s guerre mondiale toujours aux mains de l'extr&#234;me droite salazariste&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/CAF93029646&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Le Portugal enlis&#233; dans une guerre coloniale&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/CAF93023745&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La guerre du Portugal en Angola&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/I04071199&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;L'opposition &#224; la guerre d'Angola&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/I04071195&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Les jeunes portugais d&#233;sertent des guerres africaines&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/CPF86634714/l-histoire-de-joaquim-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La jeunesse portugaise &#233;migre&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/I04071196&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Le r&#233;gime fond&#233; sur une police politique qui pratique la torture&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/I00019530&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Spinola&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/CAF93030037&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Caetano&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x93k23_revolucao-dos-cravos-25-de-abril-gr_news?search_algo=2&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La r&#233;volution des &#339;illets&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://education.francetv.fr/videos/25-avril-1974-revolution-des-illets-au-portugal-v112167&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Images d'archives&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xiudyt_imagens-do-25-de-abril-de-1974-1_news&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Images du 25 avril 1974&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xiue0g_cerco-do-quartel-do-carmo-em-25-de-abril-de-1974_news&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;D'autres images&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x574dz_25-abril_shortfilms&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Encore sur le 25 avril&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xiudv6_palhacadas-pos-revolucionarias-do-25-de-abril-de-1974-1_news&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Toujours sur le 25 avril&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xlyuc6_scenes-from-the-class-struggles-in-portugal-part-1_shortfilms&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Sc&#232;nes de lutte de classes au Portugal &#8211; premi&#232;re partie&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xlyvm4_scenes-from-the-class-struggles-in-portugal-part-2_shortfilms&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Sc&#232;nes de lutte de classes au Portugal &#8211; deuxi&#232;me partie&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/I00017382/les-leaders-de-la-junte-militaire-spinola-rosa-coutinho-pinheiro-de-azevedo-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;27 avril : la junte militaire prend le pouvoir&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/I00017384/retour-de-mario-soares-et-alvaro-cunhal-a-lisbonne-le-28-avril-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La gauche social-d&#233;mocrate et stalinienne : Soares et Cunhal&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/CAF97046239/portugal-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La social-d&#233;mocratie essaie de tirer partie des &#233;v&#233;nements&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/notice/voir/CAF92018593&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Mario Soares&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.ina.fr/video/CAB87019208/otelo-de-carvalho-video.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Otelo de Carvalho&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OfL8beUReNA&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Capitaines d'avril&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt; &lt;a href=&#034;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yl0UwdkhVpE&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;La suite&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8kY9JUgt0zg&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Et encore&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&#034;http://www.lariposte.com/la-revolution-portugaise,235.html&#034; class=&#034;spip_out&#034; rel=&#034;external&#034;&gt;Lire encore&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Les syndicats isolent la lutte des dockers portugais contre la restructuration europ&#233;enne des ports</title>
		<link>https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3003</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?article3003</guid>
		<dc:date>2013-01-18T03:36:00Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Robert Paris</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Portugal</dc:subject>

		<description>
&lt;p&gt;Les syndicats isolent la lutte des dockers portugais contre la restructuration europ&#233;enne des ports &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Par Paul Mitchell &lt;br class='autobr' /&gt;
Depuis ao&#251;t, les dockers portugais m&#232;nent des gr&#232;ves &#224; Lisbonne, Aveiro, Setubal, Figueira da Foz, et dans d'autres ports plus petits contre les projets de restructuration du gouvernement de coalition unissant le Parti social d&#233;mocrate (PSD) et le Parti populaire (PP). Le 29 novembre, les dockers ont manifest&#233; devant le Parlement pendant que les projets &#233;taient vot&#233;s avec (&#8230;)&lt;/p&gt;


-
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?rubrique99" rel="directory"&gt;08- LUTTE DES CLASSES - CLASS STRUGGLE &lt;/a&gt;

/ 
&lt;a href="https://www.matierevolution.org/spip.php?mot114" rel="tag"&gt;Portugal&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;h2 class=&#034;spip&#034;&gt;Les syndicats isolent la lutte des dockers portugais contre la restructuration europ&#233;enne des ports&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Par Paul Mitchell&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Depuis ao&#251;t, les dockers portugais m&#232;nent des gr&#232;ves &#224; Lisbonne, Aveiro, Setubal, Figueira da Foz, et dans d'autres ports plus petits contre les projets de restructuration du gouvernement de coalition unissant le Parti social d&#233;mocrate (PSD) et le Parti populaire (PP). Le 29 novembre, les dockers ont manifest&#233; devant le Parlement pendant que les projets &#233;taient vot&#233;s avec le soutien du Parti socialiste portugais (PSP) d'opposition.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les syndicats de dockers ont form&#233; un front commun sous la banni&#232;re, &#171; Nous ne marcherons plus jamais s&#233;par&#233;ment. &#187; Mais c'est pr&#233;cis&#233;ment ce qui est en train de se produire. Les dockers ont &#233;t&#233; isol&#233;s par les syndicats au Portugal et ceux qui pr&#233;tendent les repr&#233;senter en Europe et dans les autres pays.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Cette proposition de restructuration des ports comprend la r&#233;duction des co&#251;ts du travail allant jusqu'&#224; 30 pour cent et un changement fondamental des descriptions de postes. Actuellement, le travail portuaire comprends tout ce qui a lieu dans l'enceinte du port, mais la nouvelle loi en exclut les entr&#233;es de service, les entrep&#244;ts et les op&#233;rations de conduite de camions, les ouvrant aux int&#233;rimaires moins pay&#233;s. Le but principal est de briser le syst&#232;me de bassin d'emploi, qui a jusqu'ici att&#233;nu&#233; les effets de la pr&#233;carit&#233; des emplois qui a ravag&#233; cette industrie au 20e si&#232;cle.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Au cours du d&#233;bat parlementaire, le ministre de l'&#233;conomie &#193;lvaro Santos Pereira a d&#233;clar&#233; que les r&#233;formes de &#171; secteur clef &#187; visent &#224; &#171; pr&#233;parer l'&#233;conomie pour l'avenir &#187; en la rendant plus comp&#233;titive. Les r&#233;formes &#233;taient l'une des demandes principales de la &#034;tro&#239;ka&#034; (Commission europ&#233;enne, Fonds mon&#233;taire international, Banque centrale europ&#233;enne) en &#233;change des 78 milliards d'euros du plan de renflouement accord&#233; au Portugal l'an dernier. Dans un entretien r&#233;cent, le chef de mission du FMI au Portugal, Abebe Aemro Selassie, a fait l'&#233;loge de la restructuration : &#171; Une r&#233;forme de l'emploi dans les ports qui fera date va bient&#244;t s'achever, avec des effets positifs substantiels sur les co&#251;ts du travail et l'efficacit&#233;. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les gr&#232;ves ont affect&#233; le commerce import-export du Portugal pour 1,2 milliard d'euros. L'association industrielle portugaise (AIP) demande que le gouvernement impose un &#171; ordre de r&#233;quisition civil &#187; aux dockers, ce qui les contraindrait &#224; travailler sous peine d'emprisonnement. Un ordre de ce genre est normalement utilis&#233; lors des situations d'urgence nationale, comme une guerre ou une catastrophe naturelle, et n&#233;cessite l'accord du pr&#233;sident.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les m&#233;dias d&#233;noncent les dockers &#171; surpay&#233;s &#187;. Pourtant le salaire de d&#233;part normal au port de Lisbonne est de 873 euros par mois, et s'&#233;l&#232;ve &#224; 1939 euros pour le poste le mieux pay&#233; de surintendant.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les r&#233;formes des ports portugais font partie d'une tentative &#233;tal&#233;e sur une dizaine d'ann&#233;es de la part de l'Union europ&#233;enne pour restructurer les ports sur tout le continent. En septembre le Vice-pr&#233;sident de la Commission europ&#233;enne et le Commissaire aux transports Siim Kallas ont pr&#233;venu lors d'une conf&#233;rence passant en revue la Politique portuaire europ&#233;enne que des r&#233;formes de grande ampleur sont &#171; cruciales si l'on veut que les ports soient r&#233;ellement efficaces et puissent rivaliser mondialement avec les ports concurrents d'Afrique du Nord ou d'Asie &#8211; en particulier de Chine. &#187; et &#233;galement importants pour construire &#171; un [r&#233;seau de transport trans-europ&#233;en] unique et uni. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;D'autres intervenants y ont fait remarquer que les gros navires ne s'arr&#234;teront qu'&#224; quatre ou cinq destinations en Europe, ce qui implique une comp&#233;tition accrue entre les ports. Le Portugal est particuli&#232;rement vuln&#233;rable, car il est &#224; la p&#233;riph&#233;rie de l'Europe et commerce maintenant principalement avec des pays europ&#233;ens par voie terrestre plut&#244;t que maritime. Pr&#232;s de 65 millions de tonnes de cargo transitent par le Portugal chaque ann&#233;e, contre 550 millions chacun pour le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Kallas a d&#233;clar&#233; qu'il voulait en finir avec l'approche de &#171; droit mou &#187; de la pr&#233;c&#233;dente commission et adopter une &#171; approche de droit [plus] dur &#187;. De nouvelles propositions pour des d&#233;r&#233;gulations suppl&#233;mentaires seront publi&#233;es en 2013.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Les syndicats, qui ont planifi&#233; et n&#233;goci&#233; ces coupes, demandent simplement plus de &#171; consultation &#187; sur la mani&#232;re dont les coupes seront appliqu&#233;es. Au cours des vingt derni&#232;res ann&#233;es, les syndicats portugais ont supervis&#233; la privatisation des ports et la pr&#233;carisation de plus en plus prononc&#233;e des emplois, au point que certains ports n'emploient que des travailleurs pr&#233;caires. Des journ&#233;es de service de 14 heures, 20 heures, ou m&#234;me plus, ne sont pas rares.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En septembre, le gouvernement a valid&#233; les propositions de restructuration avec neuf syndicats sur 11, dont l'Union g&#233;n&#233;rale des travailleurs (UGT) qui repr&#233;sente environ 20 pour cent des dockers. Cela a non seulement aid&#233; le gouvernement &#224; faire passer la loi au Parlement, mais a aussi permis &#224; d'autres ports portugais de braconner le trafic des ports en gr&#232;ve.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;En octobre, le port de Lisbonne a perdu 28 pour cent de son tonnage compar&#233; &#224; octobre 2011, pendant que le port non gr&#233;viste de Leixoes a vu une augmentation de 14,8 pour cent et celui de Sines, de 23,2 pour cent.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le chef du Front commun Victor Dias a jur&#233; de continuer &#224; lutter contre la nouvelle loi de restructuration &#171; par des voies l&#233;gales, politiques et syndicales, &#187; pour &#171; en vider certains de ses aspects les plus n&#233;gatifs &#187; et son inconstitutionnalit&#233;.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;La F&#233;d&#233;ration internationale des travailleurs des transports (ITF) et la F&#233;d&#233;ration europ&#233;enne des travailleurs des transports (ETF) ainsi que le Conseil international des dockers (CID) ont publi&#233; des appels de soutien aux dockers portugais et envoy&#233; de petites d&#233;l&#233;gations de repr&#233;sentants aux manifestations et sur les piquets de gr&#232;ve. En septembre, durant la Conf&#233;rence sur la politique portuaire europ&#233;enne, un arr&#234;t de travail d'une heure a &#233;t&#233; organis&#233; en Europe &#171; en solidarit&#233; &#187; contre la nouvelle r&#233;forme des ports.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Le pr&#233;sident de la section des dockers de l'ETF, Terje Samuelsen, a d&#233;clar&#233; que &#171; le Portugal peut &#234;tre consid&#233;r&#233; comme un laboratoire pour la politique portuaire europ&#233;enne. Diverses mesures mises en avant par le gouvernement portugais correspondent parfaitement aux propositions qu'on peut attendre dans toute l'Europe. Nous avons vu cela avant dans les projets portuaires un et deux. Nous les avons battus &#224; l'&#233;poque et nous allons les battre cette fois-ci. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Derri&#232;re la d&#233;magogie de Samuelsen cependant, la r&#233;action officielle de l'ETF &#224; cette conf&#233;rence r&#233;v&#232;le que : &#171; l'ETF esp&#232;re une discussion plus constructive sur l'avenir des ports de l'UE que le processus de passage en revue entrepris par la Commission jusqu'&#224; pr&#233;sent. En particulier, l'ETF anticipe une discussion sur les inqui&#233;tudes soulev&#233;es par ce rapport avec la Commission et d'autres organismes impliqu&#233;s [&#8230;] cela inclura l'opportunit&#233; pour les affili&#233;s de l'ETF de passer en revue l'&#233;tude du droit du travail dans les ports, la s&#233;curit&#233; et la sant&#233;, les formations et les qualifications. &#187; Le CID a publi&#233; des appels &#171; aux organisations des op&#233;rateurs des ports, aux compagnies de transport et aux autorit&#233;s portuaires &#224; accueillir le dialogue social comme la meilleure m&#233;thode pour am&#233;liorer la productivit&#233; et la comp&#233;titivit&#233; dans les ports, en particulier du fait que ceci affecte le travail des dockers. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Tout au long de l'ann&#233;e pass&#233;e, la restructuration des ports a entra&#238;n&#233; plusieurs gr&#232;ves et manifestations &#8211; au Royaume-Uni, en Su&#232;de, en Italie et en Espagne. Les syndicats n'ont fait aucune tentative d'unir ces luttes ni de monter une offensive paneurop&#233;enne. Dans le plus grand port de Gr&#232;ce, le Pir&#233;e, les terminaux de conteneurs ont &#233;t&#233; transf&#233;r&#233;s &#224; la China Ocean Shipping Compagny (Cosco) en 2010 par un bail sur 35 ans. Les dockers du port ont r&#233;agi par une s&#233;rie de gr&#232;ves. L'ETF a publi&#233; les appels rituels au soutien et &#224; la solidarit&#233;, l'envoi r&#233;glementaire de quelques repr&#233;sentants dans les manifestations et une gr&#232;ve de 2 heures &#171; pour exiger des conditions de travail d&#233;centes &#187; &#224; Cosco.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Aujourd'hui, les syndicats et les n&#233;gociations collectives sont interdits dans cette entreprise de plus de 500 salari&#233;s, pour la plupart employ&#233;s par des contrats temporaires sans indemnit&#233;s ch&#244;mage. Un employ&#233; licenci&#233; par Cosco a d&#233;clar&#233; aux journalistes qu'il gagnait la moiti&#233; du salaire pr&#233;c&#233;dent &#8211; 600 euros par mois, soit 50 euros pour une journ&#233;e de huit heures sans pause-repas ni pause-toilettes. Il n'avait aucun emploi du temps pr&#233;visible et pendant 9 mois avait &#233;t&#233; d'astreinte 24 heures sur 24.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L'ouvrier a dit, &#171; Je pense que leurs agissements violent la loi&#8230; On a droit &#224; avoir quelque chose &#224; manger vers midi [et] &#224; faire nos pauses, et pas &#224; travailler comme un chien du matin au soir. &#187;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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